Alan Cooper, Robert Reinmann, David Cronin - About Face 3- The Essentials of Interaction Design (pdf)
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Product and competitive audits
Also in parallel to stakeholder and SME interviews, it is often quite helpful for the design team to examine any existing version or prototype of the product, as well as its chief competitors. Doing so gives the design team a sense of the state of the art, and provides fuel for questions during the interviews. The design team, ideally, should engage in an informal heuristic or expert review of both the current and competitive interfaces, comparing each against interaction and visual design principles (such as those found later in this book). This procedure both familiarizes the team with the strengths and limitations of what is currently available to users, and provides a general idea of the current functional scope of the product.
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Ethnographic Interviews: Interviewing
and Observing Users
Drawing on years of design research in practice, we believe that a combination of observation and one-on-one interviews is the most effective and efficient tool in a designer’s arsenal for gathering qualitative data about users and their goals. The technique of ethnographic interviews is a combination of immersive observation and directed interview techniques.
Hugh Beyer and Karen Holtzblatt have pioneered an ethnographic interviewing technique that they call contextual inquiry. Their method has, for good reason, rapidly gained traction in the industry, and provides a sound basis for qualitative user research. It is described in detail in the first four chapters of their book, Contextual Design. Contextual inquiry methods closely parallel the methods described here, but with some subtle and important differences.
Contextual inquiry
Contextual inquiry, according to Beyer and Holtzblatt, is based on a master-apprentice model of learning: observing and asking questions of the user as if she is the master craftsman, and the interviewer the new apprentice. Beyer and Holtzblatt also enumerate four basic principles for engaging in ethnographic interviews:
Context — Rather than interviewing the user in a clean white room, it is important to interact with and observe the user in her normal work environment, or whatever physical context is appropriate for the product. Observing users as they perform activities and questioning them in their own environments, filled with the artifacts they use each day, can bring the all-important details of their behaviors to light.
Partnership — The interview and observation should take the tone of a collaborative exploration with the user, alternating between observation of work and discussion of its structure and details.
Interpretation — Much of the work of the designer is reading between the lines of facts gathered about users’ behaviors, their environment, and what they say.
These facts must be taken together as a whole and analyzed by the designer to uncover the design implications. Interviewers must be careful, however, to avoid assumptions based on their own interpretation of the facts without verifying these assumptions with users.
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Focus — Rather than coming to interviews with a set questionnaire or letting the interview wander aimlessly, the designer needs to subtly direct the interview so as to capture data relevant to design issues.
Improving on contextual inquiry
Contextual inquiry forms a solid theoretical foundation for qualitative research, but as a specific method it has some limitations and inefficiencies. The following process improvements, in our experience, result in a more highly leveraged research phase that better sets the stage for successful design:
Shorten the interview process — Contextual inquiry assumes full-day interviews with users. The authors have found that interviews as short as one hour can be sufficient to gather the necessary user data, provided that a sufficient number of interviews (about six well-selected users for each hypothesized role or type) are scheduled. It is much easier and more effective to find a diverse set of users who will consent to an hour with a designer than it is to find users who will agree to spend an entire day.
Use smaller design teams — Contextual inquiry assumes a large design team that conducts multiple interviews in parallel, followed by debriefing sessions in which the full team participates. We’ve found that it is more effective to conduct interviews sequentially with the same designers in each interview. This allows the design team to remain small (two or three designers), but even more important, it means that the entire team interacts with all interviewed users directly, allowing the members to most effectively analyze and synthesize the user data.
Identify goals first — Contextual inquiry, as described by Beyer and Holtzblatt, feeds a design process that is fundamentally task focused. We propose that ethnographic interviews first identify and prioritize user goals before determining the tasks that relate to these goals.
Looking beyond business contexts — The vocabulary of contextual inquiry assumes a business product and a corporate environment. Ethnographic interviews are also possible in consumer domains, though the focus of questioning is somewhat different, as we describe later in this chapter.
The remainder of this chapter provides general methods and tips for preparing for and conducting ethnographic interviews.
Preparing for ethnographic interviews
Ethnography is a term borrowed from anthropology, meaning the systematic and immersive study of human cultures. In anthropology, ethnographic researchers
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spend years living immersed in the cultures they study and record. Ethnographic interviews take the spirit of this type of research and apply it on a micro level.
Rather than trying to understand behaviors and social rituals of an entire culture, the goal is to understand the behaviors and rituals of people interacting with individual products.
Identifying candidates
Because the designers must capture an entire range of user behaviors regarding a product, it is critical that the designers identify an appropriately diverse sample of users and user types when planning a series of interviews. Based on information gleaned from stakeholders, SMEs, and literature reviews, designers need to create a hypothesis that serves as a starting point in determining what sorts of users and potential users to interview.
The persona hypothesis
We label this starting point the persona hypothesis, because it is the first step towards identifying and synthesizing personas, the user archetypes we will discuss in detail in the next chapter. The persona hypothesis should be based on likely behavior patterns and the factors that differentiate these patterns, not purely on demographics. It is often the case with consumer products that demographics are used as screening criteria to select interview subjects, but even in this case, they should be serving as a proxy for a hypothesized behavior pattern.
The nature of a product’s domain makes a significant difference in how a persona hypothesis is constructed. Business users are often quite different from consumer users in their behavior patterns and motivations, and different techniques are used to build the persona hypothesis in each case.
The persona hypothesis is a first cut at defining the different kinds of users (and sometimes customers) for a product. The hypothesis serves as the basis for initial interview planning; as interviews proceed, new interviews may be required if the data indicates the existence of user types not originally identified.
The persona hypothesis attempts to address, at a high level, these three questions:
What different sorts of people might use this product?
How might their needs and behaviors vary?
What ranges of behavior and types of environments need to be explored?
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Roles in business and consumer domains
For business products, roles — common sets of tasks and information needs related to distinct classes of users — provide an important initial organizing principle. For example, for an office phone system, we might find these rough roles:
People who make and receive calls from their desks
People who travel a lot and need to access the phone system remotely
Receptionists who answer the phone for many people
People who technically administer the phone system
In business and technical contexts, roles often map roughly to job descriptions, so it is relatively easy to get a reasonable first cut of user types to interview by understanding the kind of jobs held by users (or potential users) of the system.
Unlike business users, consumers don’t have concrete job descriptions, and their use of products may cross multiple contexts. Therefore, it often isn’t meaningful to use roles as an organizing principle for the persona hypothesis for a consumer product. Rather, it is often the case that you will see the most significant patterns emerge from users’ attitudes and aptitudes, as manifest in their behaviors.
Behavioral and demographic variables
In addition to roles, a persona hypothesis should be based on variables that help differentiate between different kinds of users based on their needs and behaviors.
This is often the most useful way to distinguish between different types of users (and forms the basis for the persona-creation process described in the next chapter). Despite the fact that these variables can be difficult to fully anticipate without research, they often become the basis of the persona hypothesis for consumer products. For example, for an online store, there are several ranges of behavior concerning shopping that we might identify:
Frequency of shopping (from frequent to infrequent)
Desire to shop (from loves to shop to hates to shop)
Motivation to shop (from bargain hunting to searching for just the right item) Although consumer user types can often be roughly defined by the combination of behavioral variables they map to, behavioral variables are also important for identifying types of business and technical users. People within a single business-role definition may have different needs and motivations. Behavioral variables can capture this, although often not until user data has been gathered.
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Given the difficulty in accurately anticipating behavioral variables before user data is gathered, another helpful approach in building a persona hypothesis is making use of demographic variables. When planning your interviews, you can use market research to identify ages, locations, gender, and incomes of the target markets for the product. Interviewees should be distributed across these demographic ranges in the hope of interviewing a sufficiently diverse group of people to identify the significant behavior patterns.
Domain expertise versus technical expertise
One important type of behavioral distinction is the difference between technical expertise (knowledge of digital technology) and domain expertise (knowledge of a specialized subject area pertaining to a product). Different users will have varying amounts of technical expertise; similarly, some users of a product may be less expert in their knowledge of the product’s domain (for example, accounting knowledge in the case of a general ledger application). Thus, depending on who the design target of the product is, domain support may be a necessary part of the product’s design, as well as technical ease of use. A relatively naive user will likely never be able to use more than a small subset of a domain-specific product’s functions without domain support provided in the interface. If naive users are part of the target market for a domain-specific product, care must be taken to support domain-naive behaviors.
Environmental considerations
A final consideration, especially in the case of business products, is the cultural differences between organizations in which the users are employed. At small companies, for example, workers tend to have a broader set of responsibilities and more interpersonal contact; at huge companies, workers tend to be highly specialized and there are often multiple layers of bureaucracy. Examples of these environmental variables include:
Company size (from small to multinational)
Company location (North America, Europe, Asia, and so on)
Industry/sector (electronics manufacturing, consumer packaged goods, and so on)
IT presence (from ad hoc to draconian)
Security level (from lax to tight)
Like behavioral variables, these may be difficult to identify without some domain research, because patterns do vary significantly by industry and geographic region.
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Putting a plan together
After you have created a persona hypothesis, complete with potential roles and behavioral, demographic, and environmental variables, you then need to create an interview plan that can be communicated to the person in charge of coordinating and scheduling the interviews.
In our practice, we’ve observed that each presumed behavioral pattern requires about a half-dozen interviews to verify or refute (sometimes more if a domain is particularly complex). What this means in practice is that each identified role, behavioral variable, demographic variable, and environmental variable identified in the persona hypothesis should be explored in four to six interviews (sometimes more if a domain is particularly complex).
However, these interviews can overlap. If we believe that use of an enterprise product may differ, for example, by geographic location, industry, and company size, then research at a single small electronics manufacturer in Taiwan would allow us to cover several variables at once. By being clever about mapping variables to interviewee-screening profiles, you can keep the number of interviews to a manageable number.
Conducting ethnographic interviews
After the persona hypothesis has been formulated and an interview plan has been derived from it, you are ready to interview — assuming you get access to interviewees! While formulating the interview plan, designers should work closely with project stakeholders who have access to users. Stakeholder involvement is generally the best way to make interviews happen, especially for business and technical products.
If stakeholders can’t help you get in touch with users, you can contact a market or usability research firm that specializes in finding people for surveys and focus groups. These firms are useful for reaching consumers with diverse demographics.
The difficulty with this approach is that it can sometimes be challenging to get interviewees who will permit you to interview them in their homes or places of work.
As a last alternative for consumer products, designers can recruit friends and relatives. This makes it easier to observe the interviewees in a natural environment but also is quite limiting as far as diversity of demographic and behavioral variables are concerned.
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Interview teams and timing
The authors favor a team of two designers per interview, one to drive the interview and take light notes, and the other to take detailed notes (these roles can switch halfway through the interview). One hour per user interviewed is often sufficient, except in the case of highly complex domains such as medical, scientific, and financial services that may require more time to fully understand what the user is trying to accomplish. Be sure to budget travel time between interview sites, especially for consumer interviews in residential neighborhoods, or interviews that involve
“shadowing” users as they interact with a (usually mobile) product while moving from place to place. Teams should try to limit in
terviews to six per day, so that there is adequate time for debriefing and strategizing between interviews, and so that the interviewers do not get fatigued.
Phases of ethnographic interviews
A complete set of ethnographic interviews for a project can be grouped into three distinct, chronological phases. The approach of the interviews in each successive phase is subtly different from the previous one, reflecting the growing knowledge of user behaviors that results from each additional interview. Focus tends to be broad at the start, aimed at gross structural and goal-oriented issues, and more narrow for interviews at the end of the cycle, zooming in on specific functions and task-oriented issues.
Early interviews are exploratory in nature, and focused on gathering domain knowledge from the point of view of the user. Broad, open-ended questions are common, with a lesser degree of drill-down into details.
Middle interviews are where designers begin to see patterns of use and ask open-ended and clarifying questions to help connect the dots. Questions in general are more focused on domain specifics, now that the designers have absorbed the basic rules, structures, and vocabularies of the domain.
Later interviews confirm previously observed patterns, further clarifying user roles and behaviors and making fine adjustments to assumptions about task and information needs. Closed-ended questions are used in greater number, tying up loose ends in the data.
After you have an idea who your actual interviewees will be, it can be useful to work with stakeholders to schedule individuals most appropriate for each phase in the interview cycle. For example, in a complex, technical domain it is often a good idea to perform early interviews with the more patient and articulate interview subjects.