The Persian Empire
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Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Sellwood, David. Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.
Gotarzes II
A king of the Arsacid dynasty who ruled from 43/44 to 51 CE. He was the brother of the Arsacid monarch Vardanes. Gotarzes (Godarz) opposed his brother and revolted against Vardanes. Some scholars believe that the two brothers ruled different parts of the Arsacid Empire, with one ruling Mesopotamia while the other controlled Media in western Iran (Sellwood: 204). When Vardanes was murdered, Godarz emerged as the sole ruler of the Arsacid Empire.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Vologeses I; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Sellwood, David. Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.
Mithridates I
Mithridates I (Mithradata I) was a king of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty who ruled from 171 to 139/138 BCE. He is generally viewed as the monarch who transformed the Arsacid state from a small kingdom in present-day northeastern Iran and southwestern Turkmenistan into a major empire that came to rule a vast territory extending from Central Asia to Mesopotamia. Mithridates was a son of the Arsacid monarch Priapatius (r. 191–176 BCE) and the brother of the Arsacid king Phraates I (r. 176–171 BCE). After the death of Priapatius, Mithridates’s older brother, Phraates I, ascended the Parthian throne and ruled from 176 to 171 BCE (Justin: XLI.5). Phraates I began the slow process of breaking out of the geographical confines of northeastern Iran, extending the territory of the Parthian state to the regions lying to the south of the Alborz mountain range. The Arsacids defeated the Mardi, a tribal group who lived in the eastern regions of the Alborz, and expanded the boundaries of their state from northeastern Iran to the lands west of the Caspian Gates.
When Phraates I died, he was succeeded by his brother, Mithridates I. Building on his brother’s military success, Mithridates embarked on an ambitious campaign to expand the territory of the Arsacid kingdom even farther. The exact dates of Mithridates’s impressive conquests are uncertain. However, it seems that his first major victory was achieved against the Greco-Bactrian kingdom based in Bactria, in present-day northern Afghanistan. According to Justin, at almost the same time that Mithridates I ascended the throne of Parthia, Eucratides, the last important ruler of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom, began his reign (Justin: XLI.6.1). When war erupted between the two kingdoms, the Parthians emerged victorious and took away “the satrapy Turiva and that of Aspionus” (Strabo: 11.11.2). Mithridates I then pushed west and conquered Media in 148 or 147 BCE. The Parthian armies then moved into Mesopotamia and captured Babylonia, including the city of Seleucia by 141 BCE. Before he could complete his conquest of Mesopotamia, however, Mithridates I was forced to shift his focus to the eastern borders of his kingdom, which had been breached by invading nomadic groups from Central Asia. In the absence of their king, Parthian armies continued their military operations in southwestern Iran and southern Mesopotamia, defeating the Elymaeans in present-day southwestern Iran and seizing the important city of Susa, which had served for nearly two centuries as the capital of the Achaemenid Empire. According to “a cuneiform text it is also known that by 12 October 141, Mithridates’ power was recognized as far afield as the ancient Sumerian city of Uruk in southern Mesopotamia” (Schippmann: The Arsacid Dynasty). Shortly before this Mithridates had himself crowned king in Seleucia, it is therefore possible “that the Parthian capital was transferred from Nisa in present-day Turkmenistan to Ctesiphon south of today’s Baghdad in southern Iraq as early as his reign” (Schippmann: The Arsacid Dynasty). The impressive victories of Mithridates I forced the Seleucid monarch Demetrius II to respond by attacking Mesopotamia and Iran. By this time, however, the power and prestige of the Seleucid state had suffered significantly as a result of continuous campaigns against the Ptolemaic state in Egypt, the humiliating defeat it had suffered at the hands of Rome and its allies in 190 BCE, and the Treaty of Apamea, which it had been forced to sign in 188 BCE. The campaigns of Demetrius II against Mithridates I proved to be disastrous for the Seleucid monarch, who was defeated and captured by a Parthian army in 139 BCE. The humiliated Demetrius was sent to Mithridates I in Hyrcania (modern-day Gorgan) in northern Iran. Mithridates treated the defeated Seleucid king “with a generosity becoming a king” (Justin: XVIII.9.1–2). Mithridates also arranged for a marriage between Demetrius and his daughter Rhodogune (Justin: XVIII.9.1–2). Despite these gestures of hospitality, Demetrius, who was anxious to return to Syria and regain his throne, tried to escape captivity twice, but on both occasions he was captured and sent back to Hyrcania. After the defeat of the Seleucids, the Elymaeans, who had formed an alliance with Demetrius, paid a high price for their disloyalty when Parthian forces plundered their temples. Between 139 and 132 BCE, Parthian armies swept through southwestern Iran and southern Iraq, including the important city of Babylon. In the east Mithridates I also extended the boundaries of his newly found empire, but the extent of these territorial gains is unclear. According to classical sources, the conquests of the Arsacid monarch brought Parthian armies to the mouth of the Indus River in Sind in present-day Pakistan, while at least one scholar has expressed serious doubt that “the power of Mithridates extended so far into the kingdom of the Greco-Bactrian kings” (Bivar: 35). After a long and successful reign of 43 to 44 years, Mithridates I, who had assumed the title “great king,” died in either 139 or 138 BCE and was succeeded by his son Phraates II.
Several authors of the classical era praised Mithridates I and his achievements in glowing language. For example, the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus praised him for pursuing “a policy of clemency and humanity,” which won him “an automatic stream of advantages and further enlarged his kingdom” (Diodorus Siculus: XXXIII.18). He wrote that though Mithridates I had achieved “such heights of royal power, he did not cultivate luxury or arrogance, the usual accompaniments of power, but prided himself on the exercise of equity towards those who accepted his rule and courage towards those who opposed him” (Diodorus Siculus: XXXIII.18). In short, “having made himself master over many peoples,” Mithridates “taught the Parthians the best of the customs practiced by each” (Diodorus Siculus: XXXIII.18).
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Phraates I; Phraates II; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids; Primary Documents: Document 22
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh, and Sarah Stewart, eds. The Age of the Parthians. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Diodorus Siculus. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. London: William Heinemann, 1933.
Frye, Richard N. The Heritage of Persia. Cleveland and New York: World Publishing, 1963.
Justin. The History of the World. Translated by G. Turnbull. London, 1746.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Schippmann, K. “The Arsacid Dynasty.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1986, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arsacids-index#pt2.
Strabo. The Geography of Strabo. Translated by
Horace Leonard Jones. London: William Heinemann, 1930.
Mithridates II
Mithridates II (Mithradata II) was a king of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty who ruled from 124/123 to 88/87 BCE. He is generally viewed by scholars of ancient Iran as one of the most dynamic and successful of all the Arsacid kings. During his reign, the Arsacid (Parthian) Empire (r. 247/238 BCE–224 CE) emerged as one of the most powerful states in the world. Mithridates II was the son of the Arsacid king Artabanus I (r. 128–124/123 BCE), the nephew of the Arsacid monarchs Phraates I (r. 176–171 BCE) and Mithridates I (r. 171–139/138 BCE), and the cousin of the Arsacid ruler Phraates II (r. 139/138–128 BCE).
Silver coin of the Arsacid/Parthian king of kings Mithridates II. Celebrated as one of the most accomplished rulers of the Arsacid/Parthian dynasty, Mithridates II recovered the eastern provinces of his empire from Saka tribes, seized Armenia, and concluded the first peace treaty between the Parthian state and Rome. (DeAgostini/Getty Images)
Mithridates II began his rule by re-establishing Arsacid rule over Babylonia and Characene, also known as Mesene or Meshan, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, corresponding with the territory of present-day southern Iraq and Kuwait. The Arsacid king then moved against Armenia. He defeated the Armenian monarch Artavasdes I and took his son Tigrenes as a hostage to the Arsacid court. In the east, Mithridates II imposed Parthian rule over Aria in present-day northwestern Afghanistan, and he brought Sistan (i.e., Sakastan, “the land of the Sakas”) under his suzerainty. It was during the reign of Mithridates II that an envoy of the Chinese emperor of the Han dynasty, Wudi, arrived at the Arsacid court. The envoy returned to China accompanied by representatives of the Arsacid monarch bearing gifts of ostrich eggs and conjurers. These contacts and negotiations were followed by the first trading caravans between China and the Arsacid Empire.
Mithridates II also sent ambassadors to Rome to expand and augment this intercontinental trade route. The transcontinental highway, which came to be known in the 19th century as the Silk Road, created a direct commercial link between China, Central Asia, Iran, and Rome and heralded the exchange of goods, ideas, and technology between East Asia, Central Asia, the Near East, and Europe. Direct economic ties with China allowed plants, spices, foodstuffs, medicine, and musical instruments as well as new ideas and religious beliefs from India and Iran to travel eastward. Among the precious spices from Greater Iran introduced to China by way of the Silk Road was saffron, which “was used as an aromatic, to perfume clothes and hair and to flavour wines” (Wood: 81). The Chinese, who called the Arsacid dynasty Anshi or Anxi, also borrowed the cultivation of grapes for wine and the growing of alfalfa from the Farghaneh Valley in Central Asia. Farghaneh, which is divided today among the three countries of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, was famous for its horses, from among which the Chinese imported a particular breed. In return for exporting their horses to China, “the inhabitants of Farghaneh learnt from the Chinese the art of making silver and gold vessels and iron weapons” (Wood: 5). To the west, the Arsacids established a close trading relationship with Rome, importing various “metals and numerous manufactured articles of high class” and exporting “textile fabrics” such as “silks and carpets” as well as spices (Rawlinson: 425–426). The Arsacids also exported a variety of ointments to Rome. One of these, which the Arsacid kings used, was derived from several plants and spices, including saffron, and though very expensive, the ointment called “royal” was in high demand among the rich and powerful in Rome.
The greatness and power of Mithridates II was reflected in his adoption of the title “king of kings” beginning in 109 BCE. In 95 BCE when the Armenian king died, Mithridates installed Tigranes II, who had been raised in the Arsacid court, as the new ruler of Armenia. Shortly after, Mithridates forced the kingdoms of Adiabene, Gordyene, and Osrhoene to capitulate to Arsacid authority and accept his suzerainty. In the west, Mithridates expanded Parthian territory to the Euphrates. Having established himself as the eastern neighbor of Rome, Mithridates II sent an envoy, Orobazus, to the Roman general Sulla to negotiate an alliance. As a result of these negotiations, the Euphrates River was established as the border between the two powers. Orobazus was, however, condemned to death after his return to Iran for failing to uphold the status and eminence of his royal master. Toward the end of his reign, a certain Arsacid prince by the name of Gotarzes (Godarz) may have challenged the authority of the Arsacid king of kings. After a long reign of approximately 36 years, Mithridates II died in either 88 or 87 BCE. During his reign, the Parthian Empire reached the zenith of its power and influence. This power and prosperity are reflected in the descriptions left by foreign travelers who visited the Arsacid domains. One Chinese traveler wrote that
Anxi [Parthia] is situated several thousand li west of the region of the Great Yuezhi. The people are settled on the land, cultivating the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan [Farghana], the region containing several hundred cities of various sizes. The kingdom, which borders the Gui [Oxus River], is very large, measuring several thousand li square. Some of the inhabitants are merchants who travel by cart or boats to neighboring countries, sometimes journeying several thousand li. The coins of the country are made of silver and bear the face of the king. When the king dies, the currency is immediately changed and new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing horizontally on strips of leather. To the west lies Tiaozhi [Mesopotamia] and to the north Yancai and Lixuan [Hyrcania]. Tiaozhi is situated several thousand li west of Anxi [Parthia] and borders the western sea [the Persian Gulf]. It is hot and damp, and the people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice. In this region live great birds which lay eggs as large as pots. The people are very numerous and are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi [Parthia] gives orders to these chiefs and regards them as his vassals. The people are very skillful at performing tricks that amaze the eye. (Sima Qian: 234–235)
Aside from his portrait on Arsacid coins, which depict him with a short beard and a diadem and at times with a long beard and a high domed tiara, a rock relief at Bisotun in western Iran shows Mithridates II and four of his high officials. A Greek inscription identifies one of these dignitaries as Gotarzes (Godarz), satrap of satraps, most probably the same Godarz who raised the flag of rebellion in Babylon and proclaimed himself the king in the last years of Mithridates’s reign. Another high official is Kophasates (Kohzad), who is identified as “privy councilor” (Bivar: 41).
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Artabanus I; Gotarzes I; Phraates II; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Barthold, V. V. Four Studies on the History of Central Asia. Translated by V. Minorsky and T. Minorsky. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1962.
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh, and Sarah Stewart, eds. The Age of the Parthians. London: I. B. Tauris, 2007.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Frye, Richard N. The Heritage of Persia. Cleveland and New York: World Publishing, 1963.
Justin. The History of the World. Translated by G. Turnbull. London, 1746.
Narain, A. K. “Indo-Europeans in Inner Asia.” In The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, edited by Denis Sinor, 151–176. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II. Translated by Burton Watson. New York: Columbia University Press Book, 1993.
Strathan, Paul. Exploration by Land: The Silk and Spice Routes. New Yo
rk: UNESCO Publishing, 1994.
Wood, Frances. The Silk Road: Two Thousand Years in the Heart of Asia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
Mithridates III
Mithridates III (Mithradata III) was a king of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty who occupied the throne for a very short time in 58/57 BCE. Our knowledge of this Arsacid monarch is scanty to the extreme. Mithridates III was the son of the Arsacid monarch Phraates III (r. 71/70–58/57 BCE). Mithridates seized the Arsacid throne by killing Phraates III in 57 BCE. Mithridates overthrew his father with support from his brother, Orodes. The alliance between the two brothers, however, broke down quickly. After Mithridates III seized Seleucia and Babylon, Orodes raised an army and marched against his brother. When the two armies joined battle, Orodes defeated Mithridates, who was captured and subsequently executed.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Orodes II; Phraates III
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Orodes I
Orodes I (Urūd I) was a king of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty who ruled from 81/80 to 76/75 BCE. Our knowledge of this Arsacid monarch is scanty to the extreme. Toward the end of the reign of the Arsacid king Mithridates II (r. 124/123–88/87 BCE), his authority was challenged by a Parthian prince by the name of Gotarzes (Godarz). On a rock relief at Bisotun near Kermanshah in western Iran, Mithridates II appears with four of his high officials. A Greek inscription identifies one of these dignitaries as Gotarzes, satrap of satraps, most probably the same Gotarzes who raised the flag of rebellion in Babylon and proclaimed himself king in the last years of Mithridates’s reign (Bivar: 41). When Mithridates II died in either 88 or 87 BCE, Gotarzes ascended the throne as the new ruler of the Arsacid/Parthian Empire. Gotarzes ruled from 91/90 to 81/80 BCE. He was eventually challenged by Orodes, a son of Mithridates II who proclaimed himself as the legitimate successor to his father’s throne. Orodes seized the throne sometime around 81 or 80 BCE and ruled for approximately 10 years.