The Persian Empire
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See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Mithridates III; Orodes II; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Sellwood, David. Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.
Phraates IV
Arsacid (Parthian) king who ruled from 38 to 32 BCE. Phraates IV (Frahāta IV) ascended the Arsacid throne after murdering his father and 30 brothers (Justin: XLII.5.1). In 53 BCE, a Parthian force under the command of Surena (Suren) inflicted a humiliating defeat on a large Roman army at Carrhae. Building on this impressive victory, Orodes II sent his son Pacorus to ravage Syria in 51 BCE. The Arsacid prince was not, however, allowed sufficient time to complete his mission. Suspicious of his son’s ambitions, Orodes called off the campaign and summoned his son home in 50 BCE. Orodes, who was fully aware of the civil war between the two Roman generals, Julius Caesar and Pompey, tried to prolong the conflict among the Romans by establishing contact with Pompey. As the civil war raged on among the Romans, Orodes, who had reconciled with his son Pacorus, decided to take advantage of the Roman civil war and resume his military campaign in Syria. Joined by the former Roman general Labienus, Pacorus led the Arsacid army to the conquest of Syria and parts of Asia Minor. Soon, however, the fortunes of the war changed. First, Labienus was killed, and shortly afterward Pacorus also lost his life in an ambush in either 39 or 38 BCE. According to Cassius Dio, after the death of Pacorus, Orodes “succumbed to age and to grief,” but before he died, the Arsacid king “delivered the government to Phraates, the eldest of his remaining sons” (Cassius Dio: XLIX.23.3). Justin wrote that after ascending the throne, the ruthless Phraates IV first killed his father, Orodes II, and then all of his 30 brothers (Justin: XLII.5.1). The Arsacid monarch then unleashed his savage attacks against the Parthian nobility. These shocking assaults convinced “a large number of the most prominent persons” to abandon the Arsacid king and seek the protection of Rome (Cassius Dio: XLIX.23.3–5). Among those who fled was a noble named Monaeses, who sought refuge with the Romans. Monaeses “persuaded Mark Antony that he could direct the Roman army in Parthia, and that the Parthians as a whole were ready to rise against Phraates” (Colledge: 44). Convinced of the possibility of an easy victory, Antony prepared his army for an invasion of Parthian territory. He also demanded that the king of Armenia, Artavasdes, provide military and logistical support for the Roman army. In the spring of 36 BCE, a large Roman army crossed the Euphrates River and marched directly against Praaspa, the capital of Media Atropatene (present-day Azerbaijan). In hurrying to reach his destination, Antony divided his army and assigned two legions to protect the baggage train. The separation between the main army and the much slower moving baggage train provided a golden opportunity for the Parthians to strike. Targeting the baggage train, the Parthians waged repeated attacks, killing nearly 10,000 Romans, capturing a large number of Roman soldiers, and destroying the siege engines and the baggage train (Colledge: 44). As the Roman army began to suffer heavy casualties, the king of Armenia, Artavasdes, defected, abandoning Mark Antony and his legions, who were being repeatedly attacked by Parthian raiders. With winter arriving, Antony had no other option but to retreat. As the Roman legions marched to Armenia, Antony’s losses increased. Thousands of Roman soldiers died either from thirst and starvation or at the hands of harassing Parthian archers. By the time he had arrived in Armenia, Antony had lost 35,000 of his men. This loss was even more devastating than the humiliating defeat suffered by Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE. As Antony and his legions returned to Syria, another 8,000 men were lost.
Silver coin of the Arsacid/Parthian king of kings Phraates IV. In 36 BCE, when the Roman general Mark Antony attacked Parthia, Phraates defeated the Romans and forced them to retreat with heavy losses. The Roman emperor Augustus made peace with Phraates IV and sent the Arsacid monarch an Italian concubine named Musa. Musa, who emerged later as a powerful queen at the Arsacid/Parthian court, poisoned Phraates IV and ruled the Parthian state jointly with her son, Phraates V. (Yale University Gallery of Art)
After spending the winter in Egypt in the company of the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra, Antony returned to Armenia. Using Armenia as his operational base, he attacked Media in 33 BCE. Once again, however, this invasion proved inconclusive, and once again Antony was forced to retreat. As soon as the Romans had retreated, Phraates IV regained the territory he had lost. Shortly after these impressive victories, Phraates’s rule was challenged by the Arsacid prince Tiridates, who revolted and forced Phraates to seek refuge with Scythian nomads. In 30 BCE, Phraates returned and forced Tiridates to flee to Syria (Cassius Dio: LI.18.2–3). As he fled, Tiridates took the son of Phraates as a hostage with him. Tiridates also tried to gain the support of the Roman emperor Augustus in his effort to regain the Arsacid throne, but Augustus opted for a peace treaty with Phraates and returned the son of the Arsacid king to his father. In 20 BCE, Phraates recognized Rome’s protectorate over Armenia and returned Rome’s legionary standards, which the Arsacids had captured from the Roman general Crassus in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BCE. In return, Emperor Augustus sent a female slave named Musa to Phraates as a gift. Musa soon emerged as the queen of Phraates IV. She also advised Phraates in policy matters. Apparently upon her suggestion, Phraates sent four of his sons as hostages to Rome. Musa also bore her husband a son. In 2 BCE, Musa poisoned Phraates IV and placed herself and her son, Phraates, as joint rulers on the Arsacid throne.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Orodes II; Phraates V; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Cassius Dio. Dio’s Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. London: William Heinemann, 1917.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Justin. The History of the World. Translated by G. Turnbull. London, 1746.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Sellwood, David. Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.
Phraates V
King of the Arsacid dynasty who ruled from 2 BCE to 2 CE. Phraates V (Frahāta V) was the son of the Arsacid monarch Phraates IV and his concubine, Musa, who had been sent to the Arsacid court by the Roman emperor Augustus. In 2 BCE, Musa poisoned her husband and placed herself and her son Phraates as joint rulers on the Arsacid throne. During the reign of Phraates V, control over Armenia and Mesopotamia continued to be the principal cause of conflict between the Parthian and Roman Empires. When the Roman emperor Augustus sent his adopted son, Gaius Caesar, at the head of an army to invade Mesopotamia and Armenia, Phraates V sent an envoy to demand the return of his brothers, who had been sent to Rome by his father, Phraates IV, as a condition of signing a peace agreement. Augustus responded by sending him an insulting letter in which he addressed the Arsacid monarch as simply “Phraates.” The Roman emperor demanded of Phraates to “lay aside the royal name and to withdraw from Armenia” (Cassius Dio: LV.20). Far from being intimidated, Phraates V wrote back “in a generally haughty tone, styling himself ‘King of Kings’ and addressing Augustus simply as ‘Caesar’” (Cassius Dio: LV.20). In the end Phraates V agreed to
a peace agreement, which was concluded in 1 CE. As a result, Armenia was declared a Roman protectorate. Shortly after signing the peace treaty with Rome, Phraates V and his mother, Musa, were overthrown and subsequently executed.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Phraates IV; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Cassius Dio. Dio’s Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. London: William Heinemann, 1928.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Sellwood, David. Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.
Priapatius
Priapatius was a king of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty (r. 247/238 BCE–224 CE) who ruled from 191 to 176 BCE (Justin: XLI.V). As with many monarchs of the Arsacid dynasty, we know very little about the reign of Priapatius. Priapatius was most probably the son of Arsaces II, the second dynast of the Arsacid royal house and a grandson of Arsaces I, the founder of the dynasty. He most likely ruled for 15 years and died in 176 BCE. Priapatius was the father of three Arsacid kings: Phraates I, who ruled from 176 to 171 BCE; Mithridates I, who ruled from 171 to 139/138 BCE; and Artabanus I, who ruled from 128 to 124/123 BCE. After his death in 176 BCE, Priapatius was succeeded by his oldest son, Phraates I.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Arsaces II; Artabanus I; Mithridates I; Phraates I
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Justin. The History of the World. Translated by G. Turnbull. London, 1746.
Schippmann, K. “Arsacids II: The Arsacid Dynasty.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1986, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/arsacids-index#pt2.
Sinatruces
Sinatruces was an Arsacid (Parthian) monarch who ruled from 78/77 to 71/70 BCE. As with many other Arsacid monarchs, our knowledge about Sinatruces is scanty to the extreme. He is credited with reunifying the Arsacid Empire, which was on the verge of civil war and disintegration after the death of the Arsacid monarch Gotarzes (Godarz). The 80-year-old Arsacid prince Sinatruces, who had sought refuge with Scythian tribes, was designated as the best candidate to reconstitute the Arsacid Empire and restore peace and stability throughout the kingdom. At his death in 71 or 70 BCE, Sinatruces was succeeded by his son Phraates III.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Gotarzes I; Mithridates II; Phraates III; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Vologeses I
Arsacid king who ruled the Arsacid (Parthian) Empire from 51 to 76/80 CE. A son of the Arsacid monarch Vonones, Vologeses I (Valakhsh I) first served as the ruler of Media in western Iran and then as the king of the Arsacid state from 51 to 76 or 80 CE. Early in his reign, Vologeses I tried to install one of his brothers, Tiridates, as the king of Armenia. Because of their lack of military preparedness, the Romans initially accepted the arrangement but later reneged and refused to support Tiridates. As the Romans began to organize a campaign against the Arsacids, a rebellion erupted against Vologeses I around 55 or 54 CE that could not be suppressed until around 58 CE. This revolt was led by an Arsacid prince, Vardanes, who hailed from Hyrcania in northern Iran.
Once he had freed himself from the rebellious prince, Vologeses managed to concentrate his forces against the Romans, who were defeated in 62 CE. This defeat did not, however, deter the Romans from raising another large army, which invaded Armenia in 63 CE. Recognizing the superiority of the Roman force, Vologeses I sued for peace. After long negotiations, the two powers reached an agreement. The Arsacid-backed prince, Tiridates, traveled to Rome, where he received his investiture as the ruler of Armenia from the Roman emperor, Nero. By accepting the nominal suzerainty of Rome over Armenia, the Arsacids imposed their candidate on the Armenian throne and retained their position as the true masters of Armenia.
The relationship with Rome remained peaceful during the reigns of Nero and his successor, Vespasian, although the Romans refused to provide any support for the Arsacid king when his empire was invaded by the Alans in 72 CE. Vologeses I died sometime between 76 and 80 CE.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Vologeses II; Vonones I; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Cassius Dio. Dio’s Roman History. Translated by Earnest Cary. London: William Heinemann, 1928.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Schippmann, K. “Balāš.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1986, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/balas-proper-name.
Sellwood, David. Introduction to the Coinage of Parthia. London: Spink and Son, 1980.
Tacitus. The Annals of Imperial Rome. Translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb. New York: Barnes and Noble, 2007.
Vologeses II
King of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty who ruled for a short time in 77/78 CE. Vologeses II was either the son or grandson of the Arsacid monarch Vologeses I. The history of the Arsacid dynasty after the death of Vologeses I is imprecise and confusing. Some historians of the Arsacid period have maintained that the passing of Vologeses I was followed by a civil war between a new Arsacid king, Pacorus II, and two princes of the Arsacid royal house, Vologeses II and a certain Osroes who was either a brother or brother-in-law of Pacorus II. According to these scholars, Vologeses II eventually managed to defeat Pacorus II and Osroes. However, other scholars of ancient Iran have repudiated this narrative, arguing that Vologeses II ascended the throne only in 105 or 106 CE. A third group of scholars have has argued that Vologeses II ruled the Arsacid throne from 128 to 147 CE, and yet a fourth scholar has asserted that Vologeses II ruled from 77/78 to 106/108 CE and that the king who ruled after 111 or 112 CE was most probably a new king, namely Vologeses III. The discrepancy and disagreement on the actual dates for the reign of Vologeses II emanate from a lack of reliable historical sources and the significant divergence among scholars regarding the interpretation of coins, the only dependable source for determining the dates for the reigns of several Arsacid monarchs. Regardless of these different interpretations, one fact is clear. In 114/115 CE, when the Roman emperor Trajan invaded Armenia and Iran, the ruler of the Arsacid (Parthian) Empire was Osroes, not Vologeses II.
See also: K&Q, Arsacid/Parthian: Vologeses I; Vologeses III; Peoples: Arsacid Parthian Empire; Arsacids
Further Reading
; Bivar, A. D. H. “The Political History of Iran under the Arsacids.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 21–99. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Colledge, Malcolm A. R. The Parthians. New York: Praeger, 1967.
Debevoise, Neilson C. A Political History of Parthia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1938.
Rawlinson, George. The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. Tehran: Imperial Organization for Social Services, 1976.
Schippmann, K. “Balaš.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1988, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/balas-proper-name.
Vologeses III
A king of the Arsacid (Parthian) dynasty who most likely ruled from 111/112 to 147/148 CE. Little reliable information exists regarding the reign of Vologeses III. He began his rise to power by challenging Osroes (r. 108/109–127/128 CE), who was the ruler of the Arsacid Empire when the Roman emperor Trajan attacked Armenia and Mesopotamia in 113/114. In 127 or 128, Vologeses succeeded in removing Osroes. He was himself challenged, however, with a new pretender to the throne, Mithridates, who was eventually defeated. In 134 the nomadic Alans invaded from northern Caucasus, raiding Albania and Armenia as well as Media in western Iran and Cappadocia in Asia Minor. It took Vologeses nearly two years to expel the invading nomads. The conflict between the Arsacid state and Rome threatened to flare up yet again during the reign of the emperor Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161 CE), this time over control of Armenia. The Romans imposed a new king on the Armenian throne, but in the end Vologeses did not oppose the move.