The Persian Empire
Page 44
See also: K&Q, Sasanian: Shapur III; Yazdegerd I
Further Reading
Frye, R. N. “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 116–180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Frye, Richard Nelson. The History of Ancient Iran. München: C. H. Beck’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1984.
Klíma, O. “Bahrām IV.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1988, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-the-name-of-six-sasanian-kings#pt4.
Bahram V
Bahram V, also known as Bahram-e Gor or Gur, was a Persian king of kings who ruled the Sasanian Empire from 421 to 439 CE. He was one of the sons of the Sasanian king Yazdegerd I, who ruled from 399 to 421 CE. Bahram’s mother was Soshandokht, the daughter of the Jewish exilarch. When Yazdegerd I died in 421 CE, the Persian nobility refused to allow any of his sons to ascend the Sasanian throne. The oldest son of Yazdegerd, Shapur, who served as the governor of Armenia, marched to the Sasanian capital, Ctesiphon, to claim his father’s throne. He was, however, betrayed and murdered before he could assume the reins of power. With the main contender to the throne eliminated, the nobility installed a Sasanian prince named Khosrow as the new king of kings. The second son of Yazdegerd I, Bahram refused to accept this decision, however, and raised the flag of rebellion. From a very young age, Bahram had been raised among the Arab Lakhmid tribe of southern Iraq. Determined to seize the throne of the Sasanian Empire, he organized an army with the support and assistance of his friend and mentor, Mundhir I, the Arab Lakhmid ruler of Hira and a Sasanian vassal. Bahram marched from Hira in southwestern Mesopotamia, a short distance from the present-day southern Iraqi city of Najaf, to Ctesiphon and, after a short siege, entered the capital and established himself as the new Sasanian king of kings.
The historian Tabari wrote that Bahram was selected over Khosrow after he displayed exceptional audacity and bravery in a trial that demanded that both claimants to the throne snatch the symbols of royalty from between two ferocious lions. To determine who would seize the throne of the empire, Khosrow and Bahram were required to fight and kill the lions and thereby win the royal insignia by risking their lives. Khosrow refused to go through the ordeal and declined the challenge. Bahram, however, showed no reluctance. Without any hesitation, he immediately attacked and killed the lions and seized both the robe and the crown, forcing the very nobles who had deposed his father and murdered his brother to accept him as their suzerain (Tabari: Tarikh-e Tabari, 2.619–620).
Silver coin of the Persian Sasanian monarch Bahram V. Known as Bahram-e Gur, the Sasanian king of kings is known in Persian literature for his valor on the battlefield, as well as his victories against the Romans and the Turks. The Sasanian monarch was also celebrated for his love for music and hunting, hence the title of Gur, meaning Onager, on account of his love of hunting these Asian wild asses. (Yale Gallery of Art)
Shortly after he ascended the throne, Bahram marched against the Hephthalites who were threatening the northeastern frontiers of the Sasanian Empire. He defeated the enemy and in the process extended Sasanian rule beyond the Oxus River. To consolidate Sasanian rule in the northeast, Bahram appointed his brother, Narseh, as the governor of Khorasan, with his capital at Balkh in present-day northern Afghanistan (Tabari: Tarikh-e Tabari, 2.622). To express his gratitude to the supreme god Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazda) and to demonstrate his devotion to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, Bahram donated a significant portion of the booty he had collected from the Hephthalites to Adur Gushnasp, one of the three most sacred fires of ancient Iran, which was housed at a Zoroastrian fire temple at Shiz (present-day Takht-e Soleyman), located in today’s northwestern Iran (Tabari: Tarikh-e Tabari, 2.622–623). Upon his return to the capital, Bahram shifted his focus to the west and a military campaign against the Romans. The ensuing war between the two empires, which was partially centered on the control of Armenia, proved inconclusive. After a series of skirmishes, the two warring powers agreed to end the conflict and sign a peace treaty. The agreement guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians in the Sasanian domains and for Zoroastrians living in the Roman Empire. The Romans agreed to make payments to Bahram in return for the Sasanian monarch protecting the northern boundaries of the Caucasus against invasions by the Huns. Bahram used the peace treaty to establish Sasanian control over Armenia. The Armenian king Artashes was removed, and a marzbān, or military commander in charge of defending the border (i.e., a margrave), was installed in his place.
In managing the daily affairs of his vast empire, Bahram V relied heavily on his wise, competent, and ambitious chief minister (wuzurg farmadār), Mihr Narseh. When the king was leading his army on the battlefield, the minister acted as the principal administrator of the empire. To consolidate his position at the court, the minister appointed his three sons as the leaders of the three main social estates recognized by the Sasanian dynasty, namely the priests, the warriors, and the third estate, which consisted of peasant farmers and artisans. The power and influence of the minister grew as the Sasanian king began to devote much of his time to hunting, carousing, and revelry. Mihr Narseh was, however, dismissed from his post suddenly after he was accused of committing a sin. The nature of the sin has not been specified, but as a punishment, the disgraced minister was forced to work as a servant in fire temples, where, together with his wife, he remained until the death of Bahram.
Iranian historical tradition offers numerous legendary accounts of Bahram V and his heroic feats. He was generally celebrated as a wise and valiant ruler, a brilliant hunter, and a fun-loving monarch who enjoyed sports, particularly chase and polo, as well as music, drinking, and feasting. Some sources claimed that Bahram loved music and feasting so much that he imported musicians from India. His nickname, Gor or Gur, refers to the onager or Asian wild ass and reflects his love and devotion to the art and sport of hunting wild animals. Though celebrated in many historical accounts as a brave, brilliant, and capable ruler, his reign and the remaining six decades of the fifth century may be regarded as the beginning of the decline of the Sasanian Empire. During the reigns of his son Yazdegerd II and his grandson Peroz the power of the Sasanian state waned, and Persian armies began to suffer humiliating defeats at the hands of invading nomadic groups from Central Asia. Peroz would be defeated three times by the invading Hephthalites, who killed him on the battlefield and imposed a heavy annual tribute on the Sasanian state. The decline of the empire also was reflected in the growing gap between the rulers and the ruled, which resulted in the emergence of socioreligious movements that demanded the introduction of radical reforms.
The various accounts of Bahram’s death differ widely. Some sources claim that he died while hunting after falling into a deep pit or swamp; others, such as the Persian epic poet Ferdowsi, contend that he died peacefully in his bed. Upon Bahram V’s death in 439 CE, his son Yazdegerd II ascended the royal throne and ruled the Sasanian Empire until 457.
See also: K&Q, Sasanian: Yazdegerd I; Yazdegerd II; Primary Documents: Document 38
Further Reading
Agathias. The Histories. Translated and with an introduction by Joseph D. Frendo. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1975.
Daryaee, Touraj. “Mehr-Narseh.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2012, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mehr-narseh.
Daryaee, Touraj. Sasanian Iran (224–651 CE): Portrait of a Late Antique Empire. Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, 2008.
Frye, R. N. “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 116–180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Klíma, O. “Bahram V Gor.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1988, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-the-name-of-six-sasanian-kings#pt5.
Procopius. History of Wars: Books I–II. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006.
Procopius. The Secret History. Translated by G. A. Williamson and Peter Sarris. London: Penguin,
2007.
Shahbazi, A. Sh. “Yazdegerd I.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2003, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazdegerd-i.
Tabari. The History of al-Tabarī, Vol. 5, The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen. Translated by C. E. Bosworth. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
Tabari. Tarikh-e Tabari, Vol. 2. Translated from Arabic into Persian by Abol Qassem Payandeh. Tehran: Asatir Publications, 1984.
Theophylact Simocatta. The History of Theophylact Simocatta. Translated by Michael and Mary Whitby. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986.
Bahram VI Chobin
Bahram VI, also known as Bahram Chobin (Bahram Chubin), was a military commander in the Sasanian army during the reign of the Sasanian king of kings Hormozd IV (r. 579–590 CE). Bahram rose through the military ranks to command the Persian forces fighting the invading Hephthalites in northeastern Iran. He defeated the Hephthalites and their principal backer, the khaqan of the Turk Empire, in a series of campaigns in Central Asia. Bahram eventually revolted against the Sasanian monarch and seized the throne, ruling as Bahram VI from 590 to 591 CE. Though his reign proved to be short-lived, Bahram’s life and accomplishments became legendary tales after he was assassinated by the agents of the Sasanian monarch Khosrow II Parvez (Parviz).
Bahram’s father, Bahram Goshnasp, hailed from the powerful landowning Mehran family, who were based in Ray south of modern-day Tehran. Because Bahram was slim and tall, he was nicknamed Chobin, meaning “the Wooden Shaft,” or “the Javelin-like.” In his Shahnameh [Book of Kings], the Persian poet Ferdowsi described Bahram as a very tall and swarthy warrior with black frizzy hair. Ferdowsi also praised the Sasanian general as a highly skilled horseback rider. Bahram had served as an army commander during the Sasanian–Byzantine wars after 572 CE and rose through the ranks to command the army of the north, which incorporated Azerbaijan and Media. In 588 CE when Hephthalite hordes from Central Asia, backed by the Western Turk state, invaded the northeastern regions of the Sasanian state, Bahram was appointed commander of the Sasanian army. He marched against the nomadic invaders and defeated them in Tokharestan (present-day northern Afghanistan) and captured the important city of Balkh. The victorious Iranian army then crossed the Oxus River into Transoxiana, the region lying between the Oxus and Jaxartes Rivers, and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Turk army, killing the Turk khaqan.
The impressive victories of Bahram aroused the jealousy of the Sasanian monarch Hormozd IV, who appointed his brilliant general to the difficult task of conquering the kingdom of Lazica. Lazica was situated on the eastern shores of the Black Sea, corresponding with the western region of the present-day Republic of Georgia. The king of Lazica ruled as a vassal of the Byzantine emperor, who viewed the province as an important geographical barrier, one that denied the Persians an access route to the Black Sea. Despite his usual display of courage and bravery, Bahram suffered a defeat at the hands of the Romans. This defeat provided Hormozd IV with the convenient justification to dismiss his popular and charismatic commander from his post. Humiliated by the king’s decision, Bahram rose in rebellion against Hormozd, who had become increasingly unpopular among the ruling elite. Hormozd had cut the salaries paid to army officers and had executed powerful members of the Persian nobility. Having organized a highly disciplined army, Bahram marched against the Sasanian capital, Ctesiphon, near modern-day Baghdad in present-day southern Iraq. As Bahram neared Ctesiphon, the Persian nobility, led by two of the king’s brothers-in-law, staged a palace coup. Hormozd IV was detained, blinded, and subsequently executed. The conspirators placed Hormozd’s oldest son, Khosrow, on the throne. Khosrow II had played a prominent role in the conspiracy hatched by his two uncles to overthrow his father. As the new king and his supporters prepared themselves for a confrontation with Bahram, Khosrow adopted a carrot-and-stick approach. He wrote to Bahram and reminded the charismatic commander of his legitimate claim to the Sasanian throne:
Khosroes [Khosrow], king of kings, ruler over the ruling, lord of the peoples, prince of peace, salvation of men, among gods the good and eternally living man, among men the most esteemed god, the highly illustrious, the victor, the one who rises with the sun and who lends the night his eyesight, the one famed through his ancestors, the king who hates war, the benefactor who engaged the Asones [Sasones = Sasanians] and saved the Persians their kingship—to Baram [Bahram], the general of the Persians, our friend…. We have also taken over the royal throne in a lawful manner and have not upset Persian customs…. We have so firmly decided not to take off the diadem that we even expected to rule over other worlds, if this were possible…. If you wish your welfare, think about what is to be done. (Wiesehöfer: 169–170)
Bahram dismissed Khosrow’s charm offensive and continued with his march against the Sasanian capital. As Bahram’s army approached Ctesiphon, Khosrow and his supporters fled the city. Before reaching Azerbaijan, their intended destination, however, the Sasanian army accompanying Khosrow was intercepted and defeated by Bahram. Having survived defeat at the hands of Bahram, Khosrow fled west into Byzantine territory, seeking support from the emperor, Maurice, who agreed to provide him with financial and military assistance in return for significant territorial concessions. Meanwhile, after defeating Khosrow and his army, Bahram marched to Ctesiphon and seized the Sasanian capital in 590 CE and ascended the throne as the shahanshah, or king of kings (Tabari: 2.723). He denounced Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty, as the son of a shepherd, an upstart, and a usurper and called for the restoration of the Arsacid dynasty, which had been overthrown in 224 CE.
Bahram’s dream of restoring the Arsacid state did not materialize, however, and his reign proved to be short-lived. The defeated Khosrow returned to Iran with a large army of Byzantine mercenaries. He received further assistance from army units organized by his supporters in Armenia. Bahram rushed to Azerbaijan to confront the threat from Khosrow and his armies, but he was defeated after a three-day battle near Lake Orumiyeh in present-day northwestern Iran. Bahram’s family, including his wives and children, were captured by Khosrow. With the Sasanian capital also falling into the hands of Khosrow, Bahram had no alternative but to flee east into Transoxiana and seek refuge in the Turk territory north of the Oxus River. Even as he fled, the armies of the powerful Karen family based in Shahr-e Qumis in the northeastern province of Khorasan attempted to block his escape route. Despite these difficulties, Bahram reached the territory of the Turk state. The khaqan of the Turks appointed him a commander in his army. Khosrow II, who was frightened by the prospect of Bahram’s return, arranged for his assassination. The historian Tabari claimed that the assassination was carried out through distribution of gifts and bribes among the members of the Turk royal family, particularly the queen (Tabari: 2.733). After his death at the hands of an assassin, Bahram joined the ranks of Iran’s legendary heroes. He was celebrated in Persian literature as a fearless and valiant warrior, a compassionate and just ruler, and a shrewd and gifted tactician. His fame and popularity survived the fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 CE and the arrival of Islam. In the ninth century CE when the Persian Samanids founded a new empire in Central Asia and northeastern Iran, they claimed direct descent from Bahram Chobin (al-Narshakhi: 82; Anonymous: 89).
See also: K&Q, Sasanian: Hormozd IV; Khosrow II Parvez
Further Reading
al-Narshakhi, Abu Bakr Mohammad. Tarikh-e Bokhara. Translated by Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Mohammad ibn Nasr al-Qobadi. Tehran: Tus Publishing House, 1985.
Anonymous. Hodud ul-Alam min al-Mashriq ila al-Maghrib [The Regions of the World from East to West]. Edited by Manoochehr Sotoodeh. Tehran: Tahuri Library, 1983.
Dignas, Beate, and Engelbert Winter. Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Greatrex, Geoffrey, and Samuel N. C. Lieu. The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars: Part II, AD 363–630. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Howard-Johnston, James. Eas
t Rome, Sasanian Persia and the End of Antiquity: Historiographical and Historical Studies. Aldershot, UK, and Burlington, VT: Variorum, 2006.
Shahbazi, A. Sh. “Bahrām VI Čōbīn.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1988, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-the-name-of-six-sasanian-kings#pt7.
Tabari. The History of al-Tabarī, Vol. 5, The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen. Translated by C. E. Bosworth. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.
Tabari. Tarikh-e Tabari, Vol. 2. Translated from Arabic into Persian by Abol Qassem Payandeh. Tehran: Asatir Publications, 1984.
Wiesehöfer, Josef. Ancient Persia. Translated by Azizeh Azodi. London: I. B. Tauris, 1996.
Balash
Sasanian king of kings who ruled from 484 to 488 CE. Balash (Valakhsh) was the son of the Sasanian monarch Yazdegerd II (r. 439–457 CE) and the brother of the Sasanian king of kings, Peroz (r. 459–484 CE). Balash ascended the throne after Peroz was killed in a battle against the Hephthalites in 484.
Peroz had spent much of his reign fighting the Hephthalites, who had breached the northeastern frontiers of the Sasanian Empire from Central Asia. The confrontations of Peroz with the Hephthalites proved to be disastrous for the Persian monarch and the Sasanian state. In the first campaign against the Hephthalites the Persian army suffered a devastating defeat, and Peroz was captured. Peroz was released after he promised to pay a substantial ransom. To avenge the humiliation he had suffered, he attacked the Hephthalites for a second time. Once again the Persians were defeated. This time, Peroz could not pay the heavy ransom demanded from the Hephthalites. As a compromise, he was forced to leave his son, Kavad, as a hostage with the Hephthalites. But Peroz refused to accept defeat. He therefore organized a third campaign and, against the advice of his courtiers, attacked the Hephthalites for the third time in 484. Once again the Sasanian army suffered a humiliating defeat, and Peroz and several members of the Sasanian royal family were killed on the battlefield (Tabari: 2.628). The entire Sasanian royal harem, including all of the king’s wives and one of his daughters, as well as the chief Zoroastrian priest, were captured by the Hephthalites. The death of the Persian king and the disintegration of his formidable army allowed the Hephthalites to invade and occupy the eastern provinces of the Sasanian Empire. The Sasanians had no other alternative but to sue for peace and agree to pay an annual tribute.