The Persian Empire

by Kia, Mehrdad;

  One account claims that Mahmud eventually began to regret his treatment of Ferdowsi and dispatched several camels loaded with indigo equal to the value of 60,000 dinars to Tus, the city where Ferdowsi resided. As the camels entered the city through one gate, however, the corpse of Ferdowsi, who had just passed away, was being transported from the city through another gate. The daughter of Ferdowsi refused to accept Mahmud’s gift. According to one source, when Ferdowsi died, a religious leader in Tus opposed the burial of the poet’s body in the Muslim cemetery, claiming that Ferdowsi was a follower of the heretical Shia sect of Islam. He was therefore interred in a garden that he owned outside the city gates. In 1928, Reza Shah (r. 1925–1941), the founder of the Pahlavi dynasty (r. 1925–1979), ordered the construction of a new mausoleum for Ferdowsi. The plan of the mausoleum borrowed heavily from the architectural designs of the ancient Persian Achaemenid palaces and monuments. The construction was completed in 1934 in time for the millenary celebration of Ferdowsi, which was held in Tehran, Mashhad, and Tus and included prominent scholars from the United States, Europe, and the Near East. Today, the mausoleum is the site of pilgrimage for all Persian-speaking peoples of the world, particularly those from Afghanistan, Iran, and Tajikistan. Down to our time, many Persian speakers continue to name their newly born children after the heroes and heroines of Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh, thus reaffirming their deep love and attachment for their rich and ancient culture and civilization.

  NAMING CHILDREN

  Naming children offers the people of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan, as well as all those around the world who identify with the ancient civilization of Greater Iran, an opportunity to demonstrate their strong attachment to their ancient history and culture. Many children are named after the legendary and historical personages who figure most prominently in Persian legends, epic poems, and historical accounts. Some parents choose the names of the most famous monarchs of pre-Islamic Iran’s various dynasties, including names such as Kurosh (Cyrus), Daryush (Darius), Farhad (Phraates), Mehrdad (Mithridates), Ardeshir (Artakhshir, Ardashir), Shapur, Bahram (Wahram), Piruz or Firuz (Peroz), Hormoz (Hormozd or Ohrmazd), and Khosrow (Khusrau). Other families may select the names of Greater Iran’s legendary heroes and heroines, many of whom appear in the Shahnameh [Book of Kings], the epic poem of the Persian poet Hakim Abol Qassem Ferdowsi. Popular names such as Kiyumars, Siyamak, Hushang, Jamshid, Fereydun, Iraj, and Manuchehr belonged to the kings and heroes of the legendary Pishdadian dynasty and were adopted by Ferdowsi in his works. The names of heroes such as Rostam, Sohrab, Esfandiyar, Faramarz, and Bijhan are taken from Iran’s legendary history, as retold by Ferdowsi, and given to male children. Legendary heroines such as Faranak, Katayun, Manijheh, Farangis, Rudabeh, Tahmineh, and Homa also appear in Ferdowsi’s poems and continue to be honored and remembered in the given names of newborn girls.

  See also: Legendary Kings: Afrasiyab; Fereydun; Gayomard; Jamshid; Kay Kavus; Kay Khosrow; Rostam; Siyavash

  Further Reading

  al-Narshakhi, Abu Bakr Mohammad. Tarikh-e Bokhara. Translated by Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Mohammad ibn Nasr al-Qobadi. Tehran: Tus Publishing House, 1985.

  Browne, Edward G. A Literary History of Persia, Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1928.

  Ferdowsi, Abulqasem. Shahnameh. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Penguin Classics, 2007.

  Khaleghi-Motlagh, Djalal. “Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qasim I. Life.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1999, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ferdowsi-i.

  Shahbazi, A. Shapur. “Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qasim III. Mausoleum.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1999, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/ferdowsi-iii.

  Herodotus

  Greek author of the ancient work Histories, which focuses primarily on the rise of the Achaemenid Empire and the reigns of the Persian kings Cyrus II the Great, Cambyses II, Darius I, and Xerxes I. This narrative culminates with a detailed and highly flowery description of the failed invasion of mainland Greece by Xerxes I. Some scholars have asserted that Herodotus was an untrustworthy storyteller who either invented or embellished many of the facts and events he included in his narrative. Others have maintained that he was an exceptionally talented and creative writer who may have made bombastic claims about places, leaders, armies, and wars, but his firsthand knowledge was based in reality. Yet another group of scholars continue to hold him as one of the greatest historians of ancient Greece who utilized the most relevant facts and stories of his time to reconstruct its history.

  Herodotus was born in the early part of the fifth century BCE, most probably in 484 BCE at Halicarnassus (present-day Bodrum) in Caria in today’s southwestern Turkey. At the time of Herodotus’s birth, southwestern Asia Minor, including Halicarnassus, was under Persian Achaemenid rule. Herodotus and his family were therefore the subjects of the Persian king. The port city, which contained a highly diverse population, enjoyed close trading ties with Egypt. Therefore, not surprisingly, throughout his writings Herodotus displayed a particular fascination with Egypt. Banished by the tyrant Lygdamis, Herodotus was forced to leave his birthplace in 454 BCE. For a time he resided on the island of Samos in the eastern Aegean Sea off the coast of Asia Minor. He then moved to Athens. From Athens he traveled to Thurii, a newly developing Greek colony in southern Italy. He also traveled to Libya, Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, and Babylon but never visited Persia, the birthplace of the Achaemenid royal house, or any of the central and eastern provinces of the Persian Empire. He eventually returned to Greece and resided in Athens.

  Bust of the Greek historian Herodotus, designated by some as the “father of history,” from Museo Nazionale Archeologico, Naples. The writings of Herodotus, though valuable, are filled with fantastic stories and legendary accounts. (Leemage/Corbis)

  Herodotus is best known for his Histories, which was completed most probably in Athens around 430 BCE. The purpose of the book was to describe the conflict between the Greeks and Persians, particularly the Persian military campaigns organized and led by the Achaemenid monarchs Darius I and Xerxes I. The actual invasion of Greece is, however, described only in the last three books of the Histories, which is divided into nine books. The first six books serve as a long and detailed buildup to the war, allowing the author to provide his readers with a historical background and emphasize the rise and decline of such great powers as Lydia, Media, and Persia.

  The Histories is founded on the notion of an inherent conflict between the Greek and Persian civilizations. The Persians, whom Herodotus refers to as “barbarians,” are described as a people whose culture, religion, and customs starkly conflict with what was practiced by the Greeks. As he explains in the first sentence of his book, he embarked on his “inquiry, so that human achievements may not become forgotten in time, and great and marvelous deeds—some by Greeks, some by barbarians—may not be without their glory; and especially to show why the two peoples fought with each other” (Herodotus: 1.1).

  The Histories can be divided into three sections. The first section focuses on the reigns of Cyrus II the Great (r. 558–530 BCE), founder of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, and his son, Cambyses II (r. 530–522 BCE), as well as the seizure of power by Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE), who served as an officer in the armies of Cyrus and Cambyses. The second section covers the reign of Darius I, who expanded the territorial possessions of the Persian state to the Indus River basin in the east and the southern banks of the Danube in the west. The third section focuses on a detailed account of the reign of Darius’s son and successor, Xerxes I, and his invasion of Greece. Though valuable and indeed essential for the study of ancient Iran, particularly during the Median and Achaemenid periods, Herodotus’s accounts are frequently filled with fantastic stories, imaginary dialogues, and blatant lies, reminding us that this otherwise valuable work should be used for historical purposes only with a great deal of caution. As Diodorus Siculus stated, “now as for the stories invented by Herodotus and certain writers on Egyptian affairs, who deliberately preferred to the truth the t
elling of marvelous tales and the invention of myths for the delectation of their readers, these we shall omit, and we shall set forth only what appears in the written records of the priests of Egypt and has passed our careful scrutiny” (Diodorus Siculus: I.69.7). Indeed, in sharp contrast to Thucydides, who was primarily concerned with tangible political and military facts, Herodotus, who seems to have had a very limited knowledge and understanding of Iranian culture and traditions, acted as a reporter who collected and recounted stories he had heard from others. As he himself wrote, “My business is to record what people say, but I am by no means bound to believe it—and that may be taken to apply to this book as a whole” (Herodotus: 7.152).

  See also: K&Q, Achaemenid: Cambyses II; Cyrus II the Great; Darius I; Xerxes I; Primary Documents: Document 4; Document 11; Document 12; Document 19

  Further Reading

  Diodorus Siculus. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. London: William Heinemann, 1933.

  Herodotus. The Histories. Translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt. New York: Penguin, 2003.

  Kartir

  Kartir (Karder) was one of the most powerful and influential Zoroastrian priests and religious officials of the Sasanian era. He played an important role in shaping the religious and political life of the Sasanian Empire during the reigns of several Sasanian kings. Kartir appears on several Sasanian rock reliefs. He also left several inscriptions of his own, which were carved next to rock reliefs depicting significant royal ceremonies or victories. These inscriptions are of great significance to historians, linguists, and scholars. They shed light on the teachings of Zoroastrianism during the early Sasanian period. They have also been used by scholars to study the grammar and structure of Middle Persian, the language of the Sasanian dynasty.

  Kartir’s inscriptions appear at key historical and archaeological sites in the southern Iranian province of Fars. One of Kartir’s inscription is at Naqsh-e Rajab (Picture of Rajab), a few miles from Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Persian Achaemenid dynasty, and a short distance from Naqsh-e Rostam, where the tombs of four Achaemenid kings—Darius I, Xerxes I, Artaxerxes I, and Darius II—are located. The inscription of Kartir at Naqsh-e Rajab is positioned next to a rock relief depicting the investiture of Ardashir I, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. Two other inscriptions are at Naqsh-e Rostam. The first of these appears next to a relief of the second Sasanian monarch, Shapur I. A second can be found below an inscription of Shapur I on the outer walls of Ka’ba-ye Zardosht (Ka’ba of Zoroaster). Another inscription of Kartir appears in the village of Sar Mashhad, also located in the province of Fars. This inscription is next to a rock relief, which depicts the Sasanian king of kings Bahram II killing two lions as he holds the hand of his queen. Kartir and a prince of the royal family, most probably the crown prince Bahram, stand behind the king, watching the royal hunt. The Sasanian monarch Narseh I also mentions Kartir in his inscription at Paikuli in Iraqi Kurdistan near the Iran–Iraq border.

  In his inscriptions, Kartir describes his rise to power as well as his services and “achievements” as a dedicated champion of Zoroastrianism (i.e., Mazdayasnianism). He served four Sasanian kings, namely Shapur I (r. 239/240/241/242–270/272 CE), Hormozd I (r. 270/272–273 CE), Bahram I (r. 273–276 CE), and Bahram II (r. 276–293 CE). Kartir rose to power and prominence during the reign of Shapur I and was promoted to higher and more prestigious posts by Hormozd I, Bahram I, and Bahram II. Hormozd I granted him greater power and authority as well as the insignia of high office, represented by a hat and a belt. Bahram II conferred upon him the rank of a court grandee and appointed him as the chief priest and judge of the Sasanian Empire. The Sasanian monarch also made Kartir the “master of custom at the fires of Anahid-Ardashir and Anahid, the Lady at Istakhr,” the birthplace of the Sasanian dynasty in Fars province in present-day southern Iran (Skærvø: Kartir). With strong support from his royal patron, Kartir played a central role in propagating Mazdayasnianism, supporting Zoroastrian priests and suppressing non-Zoroastrian communities, including Jews, Buddhists, Hindus, Christians, and Manichaeans. He played a central role in the persecution of the prophet Mani and his followers. Mani was ordered by Bahram I to present himself at the royal court, where he was questioned, denounced, and imprisoned. Mani died later in captivity.

  See also: Ancient Cities: Naqsh-e Rostam; Sar Mashhad; K&Q, Sasanian: Bahram I, Bahram II, Bahram III; Narseh; Shapur I; Primary Documents: Document 32

  Further Reading

  Daryaee, Touraj. Sasanian Iran (224–651 CE): Portrait of a Late Antique Empire. Costa Mesa: Mazda Publishers, 2008.

  Frye, R. N. “The Political History of Iran under the Sasanians.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(I), edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 116–180. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

  Shahbazi, A. Shapur. “Bahrām (2).” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1988, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahram-the-name-of-six-sasanian-kings.

  Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. “Kartir.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2011, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kartir.

  Sundermann, Werner. “Mani.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2009, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mani-founder-manicheism.

  Mani

  Iranian prophet and the founder of a religion that came to be known as Manichaeism. Mani is one of the most influential figures in the history of world religions. As with the founders of other major religious movements, accounts of Mani’s life are riddled with legendary tales. Manichaean accounts praised Mani as the revealer of divine truth and the model for an honorable and virtuous life, while his enemies denounced him as an opportunistic synthesizer who borrowed from the teachings of Zoroaster, Buddha, and Jesus to patch together a religious doctrine that would be acceptable to the followers of all faiths. After Mani’s imprisonment and death, his followers suffered persecution, torture, and death at the hands of their opponents, particularly those who viewed the teachings of the Iranian prophet and the activities of his followers as dangerous and a direct threat to the established order.

  Mani was born in 216 CE in the village of Mardinu in southern Mesopotamia (present-day southern Iraq), near the city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon. Sixty years later in 276 CE, he died in Gondishapur in present-day southwestern Iran after he had been condemned by the Zoroastrian religious leadership and the reigning Persian Sasanian king, Bahram I. Mani’s father, Patik or Patek, who had hailed from the western Iranian city of Hamedan, was a member of the Jewish-Christian Elkesaites, an ascetic religious sect that practiced baptism and abstinence (al-Nadim: 582; Widengren: 965). Mani’s mother, Maryam, was a member of the Arsacid family of Kamsarakan. His mother’s first name indicates that she was most probably either Jewish or Christian (Widengren: 965).

  Mani was a young boy when the ruling Arsacid dynasty was overthrown by Ardashir I, the founder of the Persian Sasanian dynasty (r. 224–651 CE). Ardashir defeated and killed the last Arsacid monarch, Artabanus IV, on the battlefield in 224 CE. Ardashir and his successors imposed Zoroastrianism as the state religion of their empire. At the age of 12 Mani received a revelation from a heavenly being, his “Twin” or his “Higher Ego,” calling on him to leave his father’s sect. His “Twin” visited him again when he was 24 years old (Widengren: 967). In the first visit Mani was ordered not to publicize his mission, but in the second encounter he was commanded to preach his religion openly (al-Nadim: 582–583). Mani began his missionary activities during the last years of the reign of Ardashir I. In 240 CE, Mani traveled to Kushan territory, where he became acquainted with the teachings of Buddhism (Widengren: 968). Two years later he returned to Iran and joined the court of Shapur I, the son of Ardashir I and the second Sasanian monarch. Mani accompanied Shapur in some of his campaigns. Mani dedicated one of his books, Shapurakan [Book of Shapur], to the Sasanian king. Shapur I granted Mani the right to preach his religion in the provinces of the Sasanian Empire. Mani tried to convert Shapur I to his religion but failed. Mani remained at the Sasanian court after the death of Shapur in 270/272 CE. As with
Shapur, the new king, Hormozd I (r. 270/272–273 CE), allowed Mani to preach his religion anywhere in the Sasanian Empire. When Hormozd I died, however, his successor, Bahram I (r. 273–276 CE), withdrew royal support and patronage from Mani. Mani was ordered to present himself at the Sasanian court (Widengren: 971). He had already come under attack by the Zoroastrian religious establishment and particularly by his most ardent opponent, the chief Zoroastrian priest Kartir (Karder). During his audience with Bahram I, the Sasanian king of kings told Mani that he was no longer welcome, and when Mani inquired whether he had done anything evil, the Persian monarch denounced the Iranian prophet for his ethical values and practices, particularly “the Manichaean aversion to chase and war” (Widengren: 971). Mani tried to defend himself by reminding the king of the services he had rendered, but his fate had already been sealed (Widengren: 971). At the end of his audience with Bahram I, Mani was arrested. Though incarcerated, he was allowed to meet with his followers and provide them with instruction and guidance. Mani died in jail or was executed a short time after he had been jailed.