The Persian Empire
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The worship of the souls of ancestors continued after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the introduction of Islam. The Iranian scholar Abu Rayhan Biruni described the annual veneration of the fravashis:
The last five days of this month, the first of which is Ashtad, are Farvardagan. During this time people put food in the halls of the dead and drink on the roofs of the houses, believing that the spirits of their dead during these days come out from the places of their reward or their punishment that they go to the dishes laid out for them, imbibe their strength and suck their taste. They fumigate their houses with juniper, that the dead may enjoy its smell. The spirits of the pious men dwell among their families, children and relations, and occupy themselves with their affairs, although invisible to them. (Biruni: 210, 36)
See also: Religion: Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas; Avesta
Further Reading
Biruni, Abu Rayhan. Athar ul-Bakiya [Vestiges of the Past]. Translated by C. Edward Sachau as The Chronology of Ancient Nations. London: W. H. Allen, 1879.
Boyce, Mary. “Iranian Festivals.” In The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 3(2), The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods, edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 792–818. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Boyce, Mary. A Persian Stronghold of Zoroastrianism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Boyce, Mary. Zoroastrians: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. London: Routledge Kegan and Paul, 2001.
Bundahishn. Edited by Mehrdad Bahar. Tehran: Tus Publications, 1991.
Bundahishn: The Sacred Books of the East; Pahlavi Texts. Translated by E. W. West. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Malandra, William W. “Frawardigan.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2000, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/frawardigan-.
Modi, Jivanji Jamshedji. The Religious Ceremonies and Customs of the Parsees. Bombay: n.p., 1922.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrīnagān, Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Mills. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Gathas
The Gathas are the personal and spiritual hymns and poems of the Iranian prophet Zarathushtra (Zoroaster). The word gatha has been translated as “poem,” “hymn,” and even “psalm” (Boyce: 1). Zarathustra’s Gathas “are short verse texts, cast largely in the form of utterances addressed by him to Ahura Mazda; and they convey, through inspired poetry, visions of God and his purposes, and prophecies of things to come, here and hereafter” (Boyce: 1). The Gathas “are full of passionate feeling and conviction, with meaning densely packed into subtle and allusive words; and in form they belong, it seems, to an ancient and learned tradition of religious poetry composed by priestly seers, who sought through study and meditation to reach direct communion with the divine” (Boyce: 1). The Gathas constitute the oldest section of the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, to have been preserved. The importance of the Gathas lies in the fact that they are believed to be the only surviving section of the Zoroastrian holy scripture to have been composed by the Iranian prophet himself. The tone and content of the Gathas is strictly monotheistic. There is only one god, a supreme deity, called Ahura Mazda, who has created the universe, Earth, and everything that is beautiful. The only hint of another powerful force is a reference to the evil spirit or the evil principle whose sole objective is to corrupt and destroy the creations of Ahura Mazda and introduce decay, death, and destruction to the world. While Ahura Mazda represents the truth, the evil spirit perpetuates the lie. In the Gathas, there is no reference to any other Indo-Iranian deity (yazata), such as Anahita, the goddess of waters and fertility, or Mithra, the guarantor of covenants and the sun god. These deities do appear, however, in other sections of the Avesta, which was most probably composed centuries after Zarathustra during the Arsacid and Sasanian periods. The Gathas begin with Zarathustra voicing the plea of the cow to the great god Ahura Mazda. The cow represents the pastoral nature of the Iranian society in great antiquity. Cattle herders were frequently attacked, raided, and plundered by roaming and violent nomads who showed no mercy or compassion toward these peaceful and vulnerable communities. Beyond the social aspect of the Gathas, the deeply personal and mystical tone of the short verses reflect Zarathustra’s relentless and determined journey in search of the truth and the mystery of divine majesty.
See also: Prophets: Zarathustra (Zoroaster); Religion: Ahura Mazda; Avesta; Primary Documents: Document 1
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrinagān, Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Mills. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Haoma
A holy plant as well as a divinity in Zoroastrianism. Haoma (Soma) was believed to provide health and strength. As a deity, Haoma belongs to the great antiquity when the ancient Aryans roamed the vast steppe of Inner Asia long before they departed their common ancestral land and branched off, settling in their newly adopted homes, present-day India and Iran. Haoma appears as Soma in ancient India’s Vedic literature. In the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, the prophet Zarathustra praises Haoma as “good, well-endowed, exact and righteous in its nature, and good inherently, and healing, beautiful of form, and good in deed, and most successful in its working, golden-hued, with bending sprouts,” and “the best for drinking, so (through its sacred stimulus) it is the most nutritious for the soul” (The Zend-Avesta, Part III: Yasna, 9.16). As a holy plant, Haoma provided extracts that were used in Zoroastrian rituals. These rituals centered on consumption of Haoma were long and complicated. The offering of Haoma mixed with milk is mentioned in the Avesta. Haoma was prepared by seven priests and consumed during the religious ceremonies. According to the Avesta, Haoma was the son of the great god Ahura Mazda. When Ahura Mazda presses the Haoma plant, the God of Haoma comes near him. The ingredients of the sacred Haoma juice were most probably ephedra mixed with poppy and cannabis. Haoma was based on a genus of ephedra, which was believed to possess exceptional healing power. Ephedra, a cone-bearing shrub that is native to China, Iran, and Central and South Asia, is a perennial evergreen that stands on average 1 to 1.5 feet (30 to 50 centimeters) high but may grow even higher. Nearly leafless, the plant has slender, cylindrical, yellow-green branches. In China, Central Asia, India, and Iran, physicians prescribed the juice derived from ephedra for the common cold, coughs, asthma, headaches, and hay fever. Aside from its healing properties, Haoma provided its user with physical strength, expanded intellectual alertness, sexual appetite, and intoxication. The intoxicating Haoma was believed to offer supernatural powers, particularly in wars against formidable foes. When the legendary Kayanian monarch Kay Khosrow marches against his maternal grandfather Afrasiyab, the king of Turan, to avenge the death of his father, Siyavash, he receives support and assistance from Haoma.
See also: Legendary Kings: Kay Khosrow; Religion: Ahura Mazda; Avesta; Magi
Further Reading
Taillieu, Dieter. “Haoma I: Botany.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 2003, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/haoma.
The Zend-Avesta, Part I: The Vendidad. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part II: The Sirozahs, Yashts, and Nyayish. Translated by James Darmesteter. Delhi: Motilal Bandarsidass, 1965.
The Zend-Avesta, Part III: The Yasna, Visparad, Āfrīnagān, Gāhs, and Miscellaneous Fragments. Translated by L. H. Mills. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1965.
Haurvatat
One of the holy immortals, or Amesha Spentas, brought into existence b
y the wise lord Ahura Mazda to assist him with the creation of the world. According to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda had created the world through his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six holy and bountiful immortals known as Amesha Spentas (Middle Persian: Ameshaspands). The Amesha Spentas represented the six attributes of the great god in the material world. Ahura Mazda brought these holy entities into existence to assist him with the creation and protection of six holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, waters, plants, animals, and fire from destruction by the evil spirit and his demonic allies. Ahura Mazda and his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, together with the Amesha Spentas constitute Zoroastrianism’s seven holy immortals, or the Heptad. Each holy immortal represents an attribute of its creator, Ahura Mazda. As beneficent beings who bestow good on Earth, each is responsible for protecting an element of the world order. Each of the holy immortals is “a yazata, that is, a being to be worshiped in his own right, with prayers, sacrifices, and hymns of praise; and they should be duly invoked, each by his own name, for the special help which they have been created to give, as Zoroaster himself invokes them in the Gāthās” (Boyce: Ameša Spenta). Haurvatat (meaning “wholeness, health, protection”), which appears as Hordad in Middle Persian and Khordad in new Persian, is one of the holy and beneficent immortals, created by Ahura Mazda to protect water. In Zoroastrian as well as the present-day solar calendar of Iran, Khordad is the name of the third month of the year. In the Zoroastrian calendar, Khordad is also the name of the sixth day of each month. In the Pahlavi text Mah-e Farvardin Ruz-e Khordad [The Month of Farvardin the Day of Khordad], the Iranian prophet Zarathustra asks the great god Ahura Mazda why people hold the sixth day (the day of Khordad) in the month of Farvardin (the first month of the Iranian calendar) as the most auspicious of all days in the calendar (Kia: 7). In response, Ahura Mazda lists the great events that took place or will take place on this day, beginning with the act of creation and the birth of the first man, Gayomard. Included in this long list are three deeds accomplished by the legendary king of the Pishdadian dynasty, Jamshid. The third of these is the building of ossuaries (astodanha) and commanding people to make them: “And when they [people] saw what Jam [Jamshid] had commanded them, they made the day ‘New Day’ and called it Nowruz” (Kia: 7–8). Thus, according to this particular text, the Persian New Year, or Nowruz, began not on the first day of the month of Farvardin as it is celebrated today but on its sixth day. In his book Athar ul-Baqiyeh [Vestiges of the Past], the Iranian scholar Biruni wrote that on the sixth of Farvardin, the day of Khordad, the Persians celebrate “the Great Nowruz,” for they believe that on this day God finished the creation, and on this day also “God created Saturn” and the prophet Zoroaster “came to hold communion with God” (Biruni: 201, 36).
See also: Cultures: Ab, Aban, Aban Mah; Religion: Adur; Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas; Anahita; Avesta; Mithra
Further Reading
Biruni, Abu Rayhan. Athar ul-Bakiya [Vestiges of the Past]. Translated by C. Edward Sachau as The Chronology of Ancient Nations. London: W. H. Allen, 1879.
Boyce, Mary. “Ameša Spenta.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1989, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Kia, Sadeq. Mah-e Farvardin Ruz-e Khordad. Tehran: Iran Kudeh, Number 16, 1952.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. The Spirit of Zoroastrianism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
Zaehner, Richard Charles. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam, 1961.
Khshathra Vairya
According to the teachings of Zoroastrianism, Ahura Mazda had created the world through his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, and with assistance from six holy immortals known as Amesha Spentas (Middle Persian: Ameshaspands). The Amesha Spentas represented the six attributes of the great god in the material world. Ahura Mazda brought these holy entities into existence to assist him with the creation and protection of six holy elements, namely the sky, Earth, waters, plants, animals, and fire from destruction by the evil spirit and its demonic allies. Ahura Mazda and his holy spirit, Spenta Mainyu, together with the Amesha Spentas constitute Zoroastrianism’s seven holy immortals, or the Heptad. Each holy immortal represents an attribute of its creator, Ahura Mazda. As beneficent beings who bestow good on Earth, each is responsible for protecting an element of the world order. Each of the holy immortals is “a yazata, that is, a being to be worshiped in his own right, with prayers, sacrifices, and hymns of praise; and they should be duly invoked, each by his own name, for the special help which they have been created to give, as Zoroaster himself invokes them in the Gāthās” (Boyce: Ameša Spenta). Khshathra Vairya (meaning “desirable kingdom” or “desirable dominion or power”), which appears as Shahrevar in Middle Persian and Shahrivar in New Persian, is one of the six holy and beneficent immortals created by the great god Ahura Mazda to watch over the metals and the sky, which was believed to have been made of solid stone.
See also: Cultures: Ab, Aban, Aban Mah; Religion: Adur; Ahriman; Ahura Mazda; Amesha Spentas; Anahita; Avesta; Mithra
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. “Ameša Spenta.” Encyclopaedia Iranica, 1989, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/amesa-spenta-beneficent-divinity.
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Skjærvø, Prods Oktor. The Spirit of Zoroastrianism. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2012.
Zaehner, Richard Charles. The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism. New York: Putnam, 1961.
Khvarnah
Khvarnah, which appears in Old Persian as farnah, in Middle Persian as khvarrah, and in New Persian as farr, is the divine glory. Khvarnah, “which appears in the shape of the Veregna or Varaghna bird is bestowed upon the righteous rulers of Iran” (Errington and Curtis: 115). Khvarnah is the “glory or divine grace which accompanies kings and great men who are just” (Boyce: 29). In the Avesta, the Zoroastrian holy book, khvarnah is mentioned in the context of the reign of Yima (Jamshid). Yima, the son of Vivanghvant, is described as “the good shepherd”; the ruler of the seven climes of Earth, who took from the demons (daevas) “both riches and welfare”; and the king in whose reign “there was neither cold wind nor hot wind, neither old age nor death” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 31–33). But when Yima begins “to find delight in words of falsehood and untruth,” the glory (i.e., khvarnah) is “seen to flee away from him in the shape of a bird” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 34). When his glory departs Yima “in the shape of the Veregna bird” (probably a raven), then Mithra, the lord of wide pastures, seizes that glory (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 35). The glory is eventually seized by another hero of legendary Iran, Thraetaona (Fereydun), “the heir of the valiant Āthwya clan” who is “the most victorious of all victorious men next to Zarathustra” (The Zend-Avesta, Part II: Zamyad Yasht, 36). It becomes clear from the story of Yima that when khvarnah departs a ruler, he is unable to continue his rule. Thus, when Yima claims divinity, khvarnah leaves him, and Yima is forced to abandon his throne, falling victim eventually to Azhi Dahaka (Dahak, Zahhak). Among the Zoroastrian deities, the warrior god and the god of victory Verethragna (Bahram), who fights and defeats his opponents, including the evil spirit and its allies, is often associated with khvarnah. But khvarnah also receives protection and support from other deities, including Anahita (Anahid), the goddess of waters; Mithra, the god of oaths and covenants.
See also: Legendary Kings: Fereydun; Jamshid; Zahhak; Religion: Mithra
Further Reading
Boyce, Mary. Textual Sources for the Study of Zoroastrianism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Errington, Elizabeth, and Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis. From Persepolis to the Panjab: Exploring Ancient Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan. Edited by Elizabeth Errington. London: British Museum Press, 2007.
Magi
Priestly caste of ancient Iran, particularly in the western regions of the Iranian-speaking world during the reigns of the Median and Achaemenid dynasties. In his inscription at Bisotun near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran, the Achaemenid king Darius I (r. 522–486 BCE) described his seizure of power after the death of Cambyses II, the first son and successor of Cyrus II the Great. Darius stated that while Cambyses II was completing his conquest of Egypt, a revolt erupted against him in Persia. Cambyses returned home to quell the rebellion, but he died before reaching his destination. The man who had revolted against Cambyses claimed that he was Bardiya, the deceased king’s younger brother. In his inscription, however, Darius dismissed this claim and asserted that the rebel leader was not Bardiya, since Cambyses had killed his brother before embarking on his Egyptian campaign. Darius identified the rebel leader as a priest, or a magian (magush), by the name of Gaumata. According to Darius, Gaumata impersonated Bardiya, the second son of Cyrus the Great and the younger brother of Cambyses II, and seized the Persian throne. This narrative was used as a justification for Darius and six fellow officers to stage a coup d’état and overthrow Bardiya/Gaumata.