24 Bulcke, “La naissance de Sita”; Dubuisson, “La déesse chevelue.”
25 Hiltebeitel, The Cult of Draupadi.
26 . Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses, 107-09, 151-02.
27 Mahabharata 12, appendix 1, no. 28, lines 72-75.
28 Kinsley, The Sword and the Flute; Hiltebeitel, The Ritual of Battle.
29 . Thapar, Early India, 228.
30 Mitter, Indian Art, 16.
31 Thapar, Early India, 193.
32 Pathak, “The Things Kings Sing.”
CHAPTER 12. ESCAPE CLAUSES IN THE SHASTRAS 1 Much of the background material and a number of insights in this chapter were provided by Laura Desmond. See also Desmond, Disciplining Pleasure.
2 Derrett, Dharmasastra and Juridical Literature, 4-5, 11-12.
3 Keay, India, 101, 104.
4 Thapar, Early India, 261
5 Keay, India, 102.
6 Ibid., 125.
7 Mitter, Indian Art, 45.
8 Thapar, Early India, 279
9 AS 2.30.29, 13.2.20, 39-43.
10 Keay, India, 104.
11 Thapar, Early India, 219.
12 Keay, India, 112 .
13 Flood, Introduction, 51.
14 Mitter, Indian Art, 46-47.
15 Keay, India, 112.
16 Thapar, Early India, 223.
17 Ibid., 224; Keay, India, 131.
18 Kosambi, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, 286.
19 Thapar, Early India, 223.
20 Chakravarti, Themes in Indian History, 63.
21 Mitter, Indian Art, 27.
22 Keay, India, 125.
23 Ibid., 127.
24 Thapar, Early India, 279.
25 Pollock, “From Discourse of Ritual to Discourse of Power in Sanskrit Culture.”
26 Pollock, “India in the Vernacular Millennium.”
27 Thapar, Early India, 258; Zysk, Asceticism and Healing.
28 Gautama Dharma-sutra 4.16-18; Baudhayana Dharma-sutra 1.16.6-16, 17.1-14.
29 Deliege, The Untouchables of India.
30 Manu 2.108-16, 3.8-11, 3.127-86, 236-50, 4.205-23, 8.61-88, 9.143-47, 10.5-61, 11.55-71, 12.54-72.
31 Amar Chitra Katha, Mahabharata #3, “The Advent of the Kuru Princes,” 13, paraphrasing the Sanskrit text, Mahabharata 1.111.31, which in turn paraphrases, and indeed reverses the point of, Manu 9.158-60.
32 Galanter, Competing Equalities.
33 Gautama Dharmasutra 22.14.
34 Manu 8.370-71, 9.30, 8.34, 11.109-15.
35 Manu 4.205-223, 5.5-44, 6.229-240, 8.296-298, 8.324-8, 11.132-44, 10.896-89, 11.54-227.
36 Brian K. Smith, Reflections on Resemblances, Ritual, and Religion, 198-99.
37 Veena Das, Structure and Cognition, 29, citing the Dharmaranya Purana.
38 Doniger and Smith, “Sacrifice and Substitution.”
39 Biardeau, Hinduism, 64.
40 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 223.
41 Heesterman, The Ancient Indian Royal Consecration.
42 Tyagi, Women Workers, 181.
43 Chand, Liquor Menace in India, 3.
44 Wilson, Charming Cadavers.
45 Dandin, “The Adventures of the Ten Princes,” 13.63-69, trans. Onians.
46 Thapar, Early India, 262.
47 Doniger, The Implied Spider, chapter 5.
48 Gold, “The ‘Jungli Rani’ and Other Troubled Wives.”
49 Apastamba Dharmasutra 2.11.17-20, 2.12.1.
50 Doniger, Splitting the Difference.
51 Sweet and Zwilling, “The First Medicalization.”
52 Keay, India, 154.
CHAPTER 13. BHAKTI IN SOUTH INDIA 1 Blake Wentworth provided the chronology as well as much of the background material on South Indian history and Tamil literature in this chapter. See also Wentworth, Yearning for a Dreamed Real: The Procession of the Lord in the Tamil Ulas.
2 Cuntarar, Patikam 14, on Tiruppaccilacciramam, verse two (of fourteen), trans. David Shulman, in Doniger O’Flaherty, Textual Sources, 170.
3 Julius Lipner used this metaphor in his book Hindus. Others have used it too, and for good reason.
4 Kulke and Rotermund, History of India, 93.
5 Keay, India, 119.
6 Thapar, Early India, 243.
7 Keay, India, 121, 123.
8 Thapar, Early India 235.
9 Keay, India, 223.
10 Ibid., 168.
11 Mitter, Indian Art, 49.
12 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 176.
13 Keay, India, 219.
14 Ibid., 120.
15 Flood, Introduction, 128.
16 Thapar, Early India, 234.
17 Flood, Introduction, 113.
18 Ramanujan, Interior Landscape, 110.
19 Flood, Introduction, 169.
20 Ramanujan and Cutler, “From Classicism to Bhakti,” 244.
21 Flood, Introduction, 131. Cf. Narayanan, “The Ramayana in the Theology.”
22 Ramanujan, “Varieties of Bhakti,” 330.
23 Ramanujan and Cutler, “From Classicism to Bhakti,” 232.
24 Ibid., 253.
25 Doniger O’Flaherty, Dreams, 286, citing Pen-rose, “In Praise of Illusion,” 274.
26 Ramanujan, “The Myths of Bhakti,” 298.
27 Keay, India, 169. It is also the earliest dated reference to Kalidasa.
28 Mitter, Indian Art, 48.
29 Tantrakhyana tale no. 1, cited in Doniger and Smith, trans., The Laws of Manu, 92.
30 Rabe, “The Mahamallapuram Prasasti.”
31 Ibid., 216-18.
32 Ibid., xxviii, 221.
33 Mitter, Indian Art, 57-58. It was called Gangaikondacolapuram.
34 Inden, Imagining India, 259.
35 Wujastyk, “Change and Continuity.”
36 Mitter, Indian Art, 45.
37 Ibid., 58-59; Orr, Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God.
38 Doniger O’Flaherty, Animals in Four Worlds, 6-7, 8.
39 Sesser, Travels in Southeast Asia.
40 Keay, India, 216, 220, 223.
41 Carman, Theology of Ramanuja, 27.
42 Keay, India, 213, 218 quoting G. W. Spencer.
43 Mitter, Indian Art, 57-58.
44 Ibid., 54.
45 Ibid., 48; Flood, Introduction, 113.
46 Ramanujan and Cutler, “From Classicism to Bhakti,” 234, 236.
47 Keay, India, 174.
48 Ramanujan and Cutler, “From Classicism to Bhakti,” 238-40.
49 Keay, India, 219.
50 Ali, Courtly Culture.
51 Eck, Darshan.
52 Gombrich, “The Buddha’s Eye.”
53 Dalrymple, “Homer in India,” 52.
54 Doniger, Splitting the Difference.
55 Ashokavadana 27.
56 Shulman, Songs of the Harsh Devotee.
57 Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva, 131.
58 Hawley and Juergensmeyer, Songs of the Saints, 120.
59 Flood, Introduction, 131, says she was the daughter of a Brahmin priest; other traditions make her of low caste.
60 Mangaiyarkkarasi was the queen; Isainani Ammaiyar, the mother. Prentiss, “Joyous Encounters,” 76.
61 Indira Peterson places her in the fifth century (“Tamil Saiva Hagiography,” 194).
62 Cekkiyar Periya Puranam, 157-62.
63 Karaikkalammaiyar, Tiruvalankattumutta-tiruppatikam , trans. Cutler, Songs of Experience, 121.
64 Ramanujan, “On Women Saints,” 274.
65 Ibid., 271-74.
66 Ibid.
67 Nammalvar, Tiruvaymoli 9.9.10; Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning, 32.
68 Nammalvar, Tiruvaymoli 2.4.10; Ramanujan and Cutler, “From Classicism,” 249.
69 Basavanna, trans. Ramanujan, Speaking of Siva, 71.
70 Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths, 314-15, cited by Ramanujan (“Myths of Bhakti,” 298-99), who calls it the legend of Matrbhuteshvara (or, in Tamil, Tayumanavar), “he who even became a mother.”
71 The story is retold in t
he Sanskrit Skanda Purana, Kedara Khanda 5.111-97, 22.1-64; see Doniger, “The Scrapbook,” 66-70.
72 Periya Purana 16 (650-830), McGlasham trans. 71-86.
73 Ramanujan, “Myths of bhakti,” 306.
74 Keay, India, 219.
75 Ibid.
76 Ramanujan, “On Women Saints,” 271.
77 Periya Purana 24 (1041-1077), McGlasham trans., 103-06.
78 Ebeling, “Another Tomorrow for Nantanar.”
79 K. M. Sen, Hinduism, 79.
80 Ibid., 81.
81 Flood, Introduction, 131.
82 Ramanujan, Hymns for the Drowning, xi.
83 Shulman, Tamil Temple Myths, 158; The Hungry God.
84 M. G. S. Narayanan, Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala, xi.
85 Keay, India, 219; Flood, Introduction, 170.
86 Keay, India, 194.
87 Flood, Introduction, 131.
88 Keay, India, 219
89 Ulrich, “Food Fights.”
90 This is part of the guru lineage in the Vadagali tradition and in the hagiography of Tamil saints known as the Divyasuricharitam. See Monius, Imagining a Place for Buddhism.
91 Tiruvatavurar Purana, canto 6, cited by Pope, The Sacred Kurral, xxx-xxxii, lxvii-lxxii.
92 Periya Purana 34, 2497-2540, 2780-2824, McGlasham trans., 240-243.
93 Ibid., 34, 2576-2753, McGlasham trans.
94 Thapar, Cultural Transaction, 17; Marr, “The ‘Periya Puranam’ Frieze,” 278.
95 Marr, “The ‘Periya Puranam’ Frieze,” 268.
96 Monius, “Love, Violence, and the Aesthetics of Disgust,” 117, 126, 155.
97 Marr, “The ‘Periya Puranam’ Frieze,” 279.
98 Ibid., 278.
99 Thapar: Cultural Transaction, 17-18, citing P. B. Desai, Jainism in South India, 82-83, 401-02.
100 Ibid., 18.
101 Goel, Hindu Temples, 413, citing the inscription reproduced in Epigraphica Indica, vol., 255.
102 Thapar, Cultural Transaction, 18; cf. Bukka I and the Jainas, in Verghese, Religious Traditions at Vijayanagara, 121.
103 Davis, Lives of Indian Images.
104 Pidana, mardana, khandana, and dvesha. Ulrich, “Food Fights.”
105 This Syriac version of the Acts of Thomas is available in Wright, Apocryphal Acts of the Apostles, 146 -49.
106 Thapar, Early India, 25.
107 M. G. S. Narayanan, Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala, x, 4.
108 Ibid., 23-30.
109 Keay, India, 181.
110 Bhagavata Mahatmya, verses 48-49 of chapter 1, citing the Padma Purana. See Prentiss, The Embodiment of Bhakti, 35.
111 Doniger O’Flaherty, “The Origins of Heresy.”
112 Prentiss, The Embodiment of Bhakti, 35.
113 Ramanujan, “The Myths of Bhakti,” 307.
CHAPTER 14. GODDESSES AND GODS IN THE EARLY PURANAS 1 Kalidasa, Shakuntala 3.2 (alternative verse).
2 Mitter, Indian Art, 28.
3 Keay, India, 145, citing the third Jungadh inscription.
4 Ibid., citing Beal, Si yu ki xxxvii-xxxviii.
5 Keay, India, 144.
6 Mitter, Indian Art, 2.
7 Ibid., 28.
8 Thapar, Early India, 287.
9 Keay, India, 139.
10 Ibid., 144.
11 Flood, Introduction, 113.
12 Mitter, Indian Art, 2.
13 Hein, “A Revolution in Krsnaism,” 309-10.
14 Keay, India, xx.
15 Mitter, Indian Art, 30.
16 Ibid., 31.
17 Thapar, Early India, 281.
18 Thapar, Sakuntala, 256.
19 Doniger, “Jewels of Rejection.”
20 Goldman, “Karma, Guilt, and Buried Memories,” 423.
21 Thapar, Sakuntala, 41.
22 Keay, India, 136-37.
23 Doniger O’Flaherty, “The Image of the Heretic.”
24 Ramanujan and Cutler, “From Classicism to Bhakti,” 232.
25 Thapar, Early India, 244.
26 Ibid., 275.
27 Mitter, Indian Art, 45-47.
28 Keay, India, 158.
29 Thapar, Early India, 287.
30 Ben Shonthal’s vivid formulation.
31 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 8.
32 Thapar, Early India, 275.
33 Mitter, Indian Art, 56.
34 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 67.
35 Thapar, Early India, 275.
36 Redfield, The Little Community.
37 www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/rural.aspx
38 Narayana Rao, “Hinduism: The Untold Story.”
39 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation.
40 Narayana Rao, “Hinduism: The Untold Story.”
41 Narayana Rao, “Purana as Brahminic Ideology,” 91-92.
42 Markandeya Purana 135.7, 136.36.
43 Nath, Puranas and Acculturation, 57, citing Atri-smirti (373-83) and Mitakshara.
44 Hess, The Bijak of Kabir, 67.
45 Brahmanda Purana 1.2.26.10-61.
46 Doniger O’Flaherty, Women, Androgynes, 130-48.
47 Vamana Purana S.17.2-23.
48 Kinsley, Hindu Goddesses.
49 Markandeya Purana 82-83.
50 Hiltebeitel, The Cult of Draupadi.
51 Doniger O’Flaherty, Women, Androgynes, 90-91.
52 Shvetashvatara Upanishad 6.23.
53 Skanda Purana 1.3.1.10.1-69; Doniger O’Flaherty, Hindu Myths, 243.
54 Markandeya Purana 85-90.
55 Frederick Smith, The Self Possessed.
56 Varaha Purana 33.4-15, 25-34; Doniger O’Faherty, Hindu Myths, 122.
57 This is the story that Kalidasa alludes to: “Shiva’s wife, Sati, the daughter of Daksha, was devoted to her husband and outraged when her father dishonored him. She discarded her body through yoga.” Kumarasambhava 1.21
58 Mahabharata 12.183.10.3-5; cf. 13.17.98, and Nilakantha on 13.17.101.
59 Fleet, Corpus, no. 18, 81, pl. XI, 11.21-23.
60 Brahmanda Purana 4.11.1-34, 5.30.30-99; cf. Vamana Purana 6.26-27, 25.1-20, 31.1-18.
61 Brahmavaivarta Purana 4.41.20-26.
62 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 226-32.
63 Shiva Purana 2.3.20.1-23; Doniger O’Flaherty, Hindu Myths, 160.
64 Böhtlingk, Indische Spruche, 1, 25, no. 130; Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 371, n. 220.
65 Courtright, Ganesha.
66 Padma Purana 1.46.1-32, 47-108,119-21. The same text, with some variations, appears in the Skanda Purana 1.2.27-29 (the version translated in Doniger O’Flaherty, Hindu Myths, 251-61, and discussed by Doniger, Bedtrick, 69-75) and in the Matsya Purana 154-57 (the version translated by Shulman in God Inside Out, 156).
67 www.specials.rediff.com/getahead/2004/sep/16ga-ganesh.htm.
68 Commentary on Ramayana 1.29.6 (Bombay ed.); Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 100.
69 Harivamsha 118.11-39.
70 Commentary cited by Kangle, Arthasastra, 12.
71 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, chapter 9.
72 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 84-89.
73 Naishadiyacarita, canto 17, verse 201.
74 Dirks, “Political Authority and Structural Change,”125-57.
75 Markandeya Purana 10.47-87; 12.3-48; 10.88-97; 11.22-32.
76 Lewis Carroll, “Wool and Water,” Through the Looking Glass.
77 Kurma Purana 1.34.5-18.
78 Markandeya Purana 6.
79 Manu 10.1.1-13.
80 Sanford, “Holi Through Dauji’s Eyes.”
CHAPTER 15. SECTS AND SEX IN THE TANTRIC PURANAS AND THE TANTRAS 1 Mahanirvana Tantra 14.117-21.
2 Thapar, Early India, 261.
3 Keay, India, 161.
4 Ibid., citing Bana’s Harsha-charita.
5 Bana, Kadambari, trans. Gwendolyn Layne, 174-75.
6 Lévi, Le théâtre, 184-95. The Kashmiri historian Rajashekhara, in the ninth century, identified him as a Chandala. Sylvain Lévi identifies him as
a Jaina, but his name betrays his low-caste origin.
7 Harsha, Ratnavali.
8 Beal, Si-yu-ki, 89.
9 Devahuti, Harsha: A Political Study, 154-57.
10 Keay, India, 182.
11 Mitter, Indian Art, 48.
12 Thapar, Early India, 275.
13 Ingalls, “Cynics and Pashupatas,” 284, citing the Mathara pillar inscription of Chandragupta II, Epigraphica Indica, vol. 21, 1-9.
14 Flood (Introduction, 155-57) dates the Pashupata Sutra to about the ninth century, but Ingalls thought it was the work of Lakulisha, about 100 CE.
15 Mitter, Indian Art, 48.
16 Flood, Introduction, 165.
17 Pashupata Sutra 3.3-19; Ingalls, “Cynics.”
18 Lorenzen, Kabir Legends, 102, 31-32; Kapalikas, 187-88.
19 Flood, Introduction, 157.
20 Shiva Purana, Jnana Samhita, 49.65-80; Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 280.
21 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 123-28.
22 Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 146-59.
23 Ibid., 277-86.
24 Ibid., 281; Shiva Purana 3.8-9.
25 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 124.
26 Siva Purana 2.2.16.30-36; cf 2.3.24.60-75; 2.4.4.5.
27 Mahabhagavata Purana 22.38-39; Skanda Purana 1.1.21.15.
28 Varaha Purana 97.2-8; Doniger O’Flaherty, Origins of Evil, 279.
29 Skanda Purana 1.1.1.20-40; Shiva Purana 2.2.26-27.
30 Doniger O’Flaherty, The Origins of Evil, 272ff.
31 Shiva Purana 2.2.26.15-40.
32 Saura Purana 7.38-39; Markandeya Purana 49.13; Kurma Purana 1.15.29-33.
33 Devibhagavata Purana 7.30.
34 Doniger and Smith, “Sacrifice and Substitution.”
35 Doniger O’Flaherty, Siva, 123-29.
36 Flood, Introduction, 192.
37 Devi-bhagavata Purana 7.30.27-37, 40-50; Brahmavaivarta Purana 4.42-43; Maha-bhagavata Purana 11-23; Skanda Purana, Kedara Khanda 162; Doniger O’Flaherty, Hindu Myths, 249-51.
38 Markandeya Purana 85-90.
39 Markandeya Purana 80.21-44; cf. Skanda Purana 3.1.6.8-42; Doniger O’Flaherty, Hindu Myths, 240-49.
40 Skanda Purana 1.3.1.10.1-60.
41 Devi-Bhagavata Purana 5.2-11; Doniger O’Flaherty, Women, Androgynes, 82.
42 Skanda Purana 1.3.2.18-21.
43 White, Kiss of the Yogini, 21.
44 Flood, Introduction, 158.
45 White, Kiss of the Yogini, 9, 123, 159.
46 Flood, Introduction, 158.
47 Ibid., 154.
48 Ibid., 155.
49 Kripal, “Hinduism and Popular Western Culture.”
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