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Hadrian's Wall

Page 13

by Adrian Goldsworthy


  raids from outside, 132–133

  in Roman Empire, xiv, 1–2, 5, 53–54, 124–126

  third century AD changes, 124–126

  tribes at time of invasion, 7–8

  troubles in third century AD, 126, 128–129

  troubles under Commodus, 47–48

  troubles under Marcus Aurelius, 43

  war in Antoninus Pius reign, 41–42

  war under Severus, 49–50, 86

  warfare unreported in sources, 87–88

  Broad Wall, 24–25, 39 (photo)

  Caesar (Julius Caesar), 1–2, 4, 11, 14

  Caledonians, 49, 50

  Caracalla, 120

  Carausius, 53, 125

  Carlisle (Luguvallium), 8, 73–74

  Carlisle writing tablets, 9, 91

  Carrawburgh fort, 140

  Carrawburgh temple, 104, 140–141

  Cassius Dio (Dio), 45, 47, 50

  causeways, 25, 55, 57

  cavalrymen, 116 (drawing)

  description, 116–117

  numbers at Hadrian’s Wall, 112

  sculpture of, 11, 13

  Cawfields. See Milecastle 42

  centurions, 34

  chalet-barracks, 75 (photo), 81–82

  chariots, use in war, 11

  Chesters fort, 24, 100 (photo)

  children

  of soldiers, 84–85, 107–108

  tombstones and inscriptions, 102

  Christianity, 106

  chronology of events, vii–x

  churches (Christian), 107

  Cicero, 2

  cippi (stakes or spikes), 60

  citizenship, 29, 33, 120

  civil settlements. See vicus (vici) settlement

  civil wars in Empire, 52–53, 128–129, 131

  Claudia Severa, 12

  Claudius, 7

  climate, in northern Britain, xiii

  clothing of army, 121, 127, 130

  Cnaeus Julius Agricola, 8

  cohors I Tungrorum, soldiers, 91

  comitatenses (‘mobile field units’), 125

  commander’s house (praetorium), 77, 103, 103 (drawing)

  Commodus, Emperor, 45, 47–49

  Connolly, Peter, 63, 64

  conquest of Britain, 1–2, 5

  Constantine, Emperor, 106, 126

  Constantius I, 125–126

  Constantius III, 128

  construction of Hadrian’s Wall, 18, 20–21, 23–25, 27, 35, 37, 38, 60

  contubernium, 80–81

  Corbridge (Coria), 9–10, 73–74, 117

  Corionototae people, 117

  Coventina (or Covventina), 104, 105 (photo)

  curator, morning routine, 88–89

  currency and coins, 89, 122

  deaths, in vici, 101–102

  Decimus Clodius Albinus, 49

  decommission of Hadrian’s Wall, 42–43, 54–55

  deities and gods, 102, 104, 106–107, 122

  dendrochronological analysis, at forts, 8

  Dere Street, 25, 73

  Dio (Cassius Dio), 45, 47, 50

  diplomacy, 112

  ditch at Hadrian’s Wall, 25, 57–58, 60, 65

  documentation by army, 89–91, 92

  Domitian, Emperor, 8–9

  druids and Druidic cult, 106

  eastern section of Hadrian’s Wall, berm, 58

  Empire (Roman Empire)

  boundaries, 5

  Britain in, xiv, 1–2, 5, 53–54, 124–126

  changes of third century AD, 124–126

  citizenship, 120

  civil wars, 52–53, 128–129, 131

  end of formal rule in Britain, 128–129, 133, 135

  expansion, 4–5, 10, 17

  in fourth and fifth centuries AD, 131–132

  Hadrian’s Wall in, xiv–xv

  irregular units, 120

  legacy and remains in Britain, 135–136

  power struggles, 128–129, 131–132

  and soldiers, 120

  visits by Hadrian, 17–18

  equestrians (equites)

  military posts, 33–34, 125

  religion, 104

  wife and children, 107–108

  equipment and supplies in army, 91, 121, 127, 130

  ethnicity in army, 31

  eye health, 78

  families of soldiers, 84–85, 107–108

  Fanum Cocidii (Bewcastle outpost fort), 104

  Flavius Ceralis, 92

  food and drink, 96–97, 99, 101

  footwear, 99, 110, 110 (photo)

  forts

  along Hadrian’s Wall, 23, 37–38, 69

  on Antonine Wall, 42

  changes of third century AD, 121–122, 124

  civilians in, 122

  construction, 23–24, 25

  dendrochronological analysis, 8

  at end of Roman rule in Britain, 133–134

  food and meals, 96–97, 99, 101

  headquarters (principia), 77, 93, 93 (drawing)

  layout and shape, 76, 86

  lifestyle in, 77

  maintenance, 94

  purpose, 63

  and settlements, 74

  soldiers and troops, 23, 37–38, 53–54, 80–81, 83–86, 91–92

  structures at, 76–78, 80–82, 84–86

  vici (see vicus (vici) settlement)

  See also specific buildings and features of forts; specific forts

  foundations of Hadrian’s Wall, 60, 70 (photo)

  galearii (helmet wearers), 84

  Gallic empire, 53

  garrisons

  accommodation, 66

  known and probable, 149–151

  location along Hadrian’s Wall, 23

  numbers of soldiers at, 91–92

  gates

  at forts, 76–77

  at milecastles, 68, 71

  gateways in forts, 20, 23, 59 (photo), 67

  reconstruction, 67 (photo)

  Germanic tribesmen, as irregular units, 119

  Germany, 27, 132

  Gerunia district, 41

  Gildas, 136–137

  gods and deities, 102, 104, 106–107, 122

  granaries (horrea), 51 (drawing), 79 (photo), 123 (photo)

  changes in, 124

  description and use, 78, 79, 123

  Gratian, Emperor, 128

  Hadrian, Emperor

  background and character, 15, 17

  bronze head, xvi (photo)

  construction and planning of Wall, xvi, xvii, 18, 20

  death and succession, 38

  deification, 38

  as successor to Trajan, 17

  training of soldiers, 94–95

  visit to Britain, xvi, 18

  visits to legions, 17–18

  Hadrian’s Wall, xiii (photo), 3 (photo), 6 (photo), 16 (map), 39 (photo), 44 (map), 59 (photo)

  access across for army, 111–112

  ancient literature on, xvii

  changes of third century AD, 121–122, 124–125

  construction, 18, 20–21, 23–25, 27, 35, 37, 38, 60

  cross-section, 64 (drawing)

  crossing by travellers, 109, 111

  crossings for raids, 114–115, 117–118

  decline and remnants, 135–136

  decommission, 42–43, 54–55

  defense of, 113–115

  description, xiv–xv, 16, 20, 60–61

  design, 20

  at end of Roman rule in Britain, 133–134

  foundations, 60, 70 (photo)

  in fourth and fifth centuries AD, 131, 133–135

  in history after Roman era, 136–137

  importance, xiv–xv

  maintenance, 94

  obstacles in front of, 60, 70 (photo)

  outsiders on northern side (see northern tribes and peoples)

  physical components, 57–58, 60–62, 65–66, 68–69, 71

  purpose, xv, xvii, xx, 27, 42, 111, 113

  recommission and rebuilding, 43, 45, 111

  repairs in thir
d century AD, 124

  research on, xvii–xix

  on Rudge Cup, 19 (photo)

  social life and trade, 107

  stone wall (see Stone Wall)

  and surveillance of tribes, 112

  towns along, 73–74, 76

  and trade, 74, 107, 122

  turf wall (see Turf Wall)

  as Vallum or Vallum Aelium (see Vallum)

  walkway on top, 61

  width, 24–25

  See also specific features and sections

  Hadrian’s Wall Path, 141

  handwriting, 12 (photo)

  head hunting, 116, 116 (drawing)

  headquarters at forts (principia), 77, 93, 93 (drawing)

  High Rochester, 107

  Hnaudifridius, 119

  Horace, 5

  horrea. See granaries

  horses

  equipment, 116, 116 (drawing)

  stables, 82, 84

  training, 94–95

  hospital (valetudinarium), 78, 80

  Housesteads fort, 6 (photo), 26 (drawing), 63 (drawing)

  chalet-barracks, 75 (photo)

  construction, 24, 26

  gate, 73

  granaries, 79 (photo)

  irregular units, 119

  latrines, 85

  praetorium, 103 (drawing)

  principia, 93 (drawing)

  vicus, 76

  II Augusta legion, 10

  Inchtuthil fortress, 8, 9

  infantry barracks. See barracks

  infantryman, 46, 46 (drawing)

  inns, in vici, 101

  Josephus, 96

  Julius Caesar, 1–2, 4, 11, 14

  Jupiter Optimus Maximus, 102, 104

  Kipling, Rudyard, xi, xii, 128

  Knag Burn gate, 73

  knights. See equestrians

  latrines, 85, 98 (drawing)

  legates (legatus legionis), 33

  legionaries, 32 (drawing), 127 (drawing)

  building of Hadrian’s Wall, 35

  description, 31, 32, 127

  legions

  in Britain, 7, 8–9, 10, 18, 29, 31

  changes of third century AD, 121, 125

  description and size, 29, 121

  Limestone Corner, 58, 69

  limetanei (‘frontier garrisons’), 125

  Luguvallium (Carlisle), 8, 73–74

  Maeatae group, fighting against Romans, 49–50

  mansio, 51 (drawing)

  Marcus Aurelius, Emperor, 43, 45

  marginal mound, 45, 69

  Mark Antony, 4

  marriage for soldiers, 84–85

  Maryport fort, 76, 107

  Maximus, Magnus, Emperor 128

  meals at forts, 97

  measurements, system and conversions, xx

  medical care of soldiers, 78, 80

  Meditations (Marcus Aurelius), 43

  Milecastle 35, 68, 71

  Milecastle 37, 6 (photo), 64 (drawing)

  gateway, 59 (photo)

  Milecastle 39, 3 (photo)

  Milecastle 47, 66

  Milecastle 52, 66

  Milecastle 42 (Cawfields), xiii (photo), 68

  Milecastle 48 (Poltross Burn), 60, 66, 140

  milecastles

  along Hadrian’s Wall, 20, 21

  construction and changes, 21, 54–55

  description and sizes, 65–66, 68

  entrances and gateways, 68

  numbering system, xx

  occupation of, 66

  reconstruction, 36 (photo)

  See also specific milecastles

  military. See army (Roman Army)

  Military Way, construction, 45

  mithraism and mithraeum, 104, 140–141

  Mons Graupius battle, 11–13

  murders, in vici, 101

  Narrow Wall, 24–25, 39 (photo), 61

  Newstead (Trimontium), 9

  northern Britain, 44 (map)

  climate, xiii

  local religions, 106

  northern tribes and peoples, 44 (map)

  as army and warriors, 11, 13

  control by Romans, 8–11

  and first sites of Hadrian’s Wall, 9–10

  knowledge of, xviii–xix

  raids on Hadrian’s Wall, 14, 114–115, 117–118

  surveillance of, 112

  wars and conflicts with Romans, xviii–xix, 10–14

  obstacles in front of wall, 60, 70 (photo)

  officers, 33–34, 99

  optio, morning routine, 88–89

  outposts, beyond walls, 42

  parapet on Hadrian’s Wall, 61–62, 64 (drawing)

  Parnesius, story in Puck of Pook’s Hill, xi–xii, 128

  Pausanias, 41

  pay and deductions of soldiers, 89–91

  Peel Gap turrets, 39 (photo), 62, 140

  physical components of Hadrian’s Wall, 57–58, 60–62, 65–66, 68–69, 71

  Picts

  troubles in third century AD, 126, 128

  use of name, 52

  plague, 48

  plundering raids, 115, 117–118

  Poltross Burn. See Milecastle 48

  praetorium (commander’s house), 77, 103, 103 (drawing)

  prefects (praefectus), 34, 77

  princeps and principate, 4

  principia (headquarters at forts), 77, 93, 93 (drawing)

  Puck of Pook’s Hill (Kipling), xi, xii

  raids

  on Britain, 132–133

  in Europe, xviii–xix, 14

  by northern tribes and peoples, 14, 114–115, 117–118

  recommission of Hadrian’s Wall, 43, 45, 111

  Regina (wife of Barates), 101–102

  religion and ritual, 102, 104, 105 (photo), 106–107, 122

  roads, 73, 76–77, 136

  Roman Army. See army

  Rome and Rome’s Republic

  civil war, 4

  expansion and conquests, 2–4, 5

  foundation, 2

  leaders and governance, 2, 4

  See also Empire

  Rudge Cup, 19 (photo)

  Saint Severinus, 135

  ‘scorpions’, type of catapult (ballista), 65

  Scots, and troubles in third century AD, 126, 128

  See also Picts

  senators, military posts, 33, 34, 125

  Senhouse Museum, 141

  Septimius Severus. See Severus (Emperor)

  settlements. See vicus (vici) settlement

  Severus (Emperor) (Lucius Septimius Severus)

  wrongly believed builder of Hadrian’s Wall, 137

  character, 49

  death and succession, 50, 52

  division of Britain, 124–125

  and Hadrian’s Wall, 50, 52

  as successor to Commodus, 49

  visit to Britain, 50

  war in Britain, 49–50, 86

  Severus (slave), 99

  shoes, 99, 110, 110 (photo)

  slaves, 84, 99

  sleeping quarters, 81

  soldiers, 130 (drawing)

  food and drink, 96–97, 99

  footwear, 99

  in forts, 23, 37–38, 53–54, 80–81, 83–86, 91–92

  leave for, 97

  life along Hadrian’s Wall, 88–92, 94

  medical care, 78, 80

  at milecastles, 66

  morning routine, 88–89

  numbers of, 91–92, 111

  pay and deductions, 89–91

  postings at Hadrian’s Wall, 68

  readiness for battles, 96

  and Roman Empire, 120

  service and conscription, 33, 120–121

  training, 94–96

  in turrets, 62, 65, 66

  warfare, 88

  wife and children, 84–85, 107–108

  South Shields fort

  barracks, 83 (photo)

  description, 86

  at end of Roman rule in Britain, 133

  rebuilding and changes, 122, 124

  tombstones, 102


  South Shields gateway, reconstruction, 67 (photo)

  squared rubble, for construction, 35

  stables for horses, 82, 84

  stakes (spikes) (cippi), 60

  Stanegate Road, 9–10, 51 (drawing)

  stone

  for Hadrian’s Wall construction, 35, 37, 60

  layout, 64 (photo)

  Stone Wall

  building style, 60

  description, 20, 60–61

  reconstruction, 70 (photo)

  See also Turf Wall

  Strabo, 5

  strip housing, 76

  Sulpicia Lepidina, 12

  swords, 121

  Temple to Mithras (at Carrawburgh), 104, 140–141

  Theodosius, Emperor, 128

  timber, for wall building, 24

  tombstones and inscriptions, 102

  tourism at Hadrian’s Wall, xv, 139–141

  towers, 64 (drawing)

  See also turrets

  towns along Hadrian’s Wall, description and life in, 73–74, 76

  trade and Hadrian’s Wall, 74, 107, 122

  training of soldiers, 94–96

  Trajan, Emperor, 9, 10, 11, 15, 17

  travellers, crossing of Hadrian’s Wall, 109, 111

  Trimontium (Newstead), 9

  turf, in construction, 36

  Turf Wall

  construction, 20, 21, 27

  rebuilding, 45

  See also Stone Wall

  turrets, 39 (photo)

  along Hadrian’s Wall, 20, 21, 39

  cutaway view, 64 (drawing)

  decommission, 54, 71

  description, 62

  height, 62

  soldiers in, 62, 65, 66

  Ulpius Marcellus, 47–48

  UNESCO World Heritage Site, xv

  valetudinarium (hospital), 78, 80

  Vallum or Vallum Aelium (Wall of Aelius)

  construction, 35, 69

  cross-section, 64 (drawing)

  description, xvii, 25, 69, 71

  at Housesteads, 26, 26 (drawing), 63 (drawing)

  and marginal mound, 45, 69

  name of, xvii

  and raids, 115

  recommission, 45

  See also Hadrian’s Wall

  VI Victrix legion, 18

  via praetoria, 76

  via principalis, 76–77

  vicus (vici) settlement (civil settlement), 51 (drawing)

  description and life at, 74, 76

  disappearance, 122

  families of soldiers, 85

  food and drink, 99

  games and violence, 101

  viewing platforms, along Hadrian’s Wall, 68

  Vindolanda fort (at Chesterholm), 51 (drawing)

  bathhouse, 98 (drawing)

  civilians in, 122

  description, 51

  families of soldiers, 85

  floors, 81

  footwear, 110 (photo)

  house nearby, 74

  life and people in, 86

  numbers of soldiers at, 91–92

  visits to, 139

  Vindolanda milecastle, reconstruction, 36 (photo)

  Vindolanda writing tablets, 9, 12 (photo)

 

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