by Imani Perry
20. Although the official change to Black History Month wouldn’t be declared until 1976, some organizations were already designating February Black History Month in the early 1970s.
21. James Thomas Jackson, Waiting in Line at the Drugstore and Other Writings of James Thomas Jackson (Denton: University of North Texas Press, 1993), 247–48.
22. Andrea Juliette Lightbourne, “Shining through the Clouds: An Historical Case Study of a Segregated School in Tucson, Arizona” (PhD diss., University of Arizona, 2004), 236, UMI no. 3158122.
23. Adelaide Cromwell, The Other Brahmins: Boston’s Black Upper Class, 1750–1950 (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1994).
24. Adelaide Cromwell Hill, “Black Education in the Seventies: A Lesson from the Past,” in The Black Seventies, ed. Floyd B. Barbour (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1970), 64.
25. Oral History Interview with Joanne Peerman, February 24, 2001, interview K-0557, Southern Oral History Program Collection (no. 4007), Southern Oral History Program Collection, Southern Historical Collection, Wilson Library, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
26. Kenneth L. Fish, “More ‘Soul’ Needed in White Teachers,” Clearing House 46, no. 8 (April 1972): 502.
27. Mary Eleanor Rhodes Hoover, “The Nairobi Day School: An African American Independent School, 1966–1984,” Journal of Negro Education 61, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 203.
28. Ibid.
29. Ibid., 206.
30. Ibid., 205.
31. Orde Coombs, “The Necessity of Excellence: I. Nairobi College,” Change 5, no. 3 (April 1973): 42.
32. John Egerton, “Success Comes to Nairobi College,” Change 4 (May 1972): 25–27.
33. Coombs, “The Necessity of Excellence: I. Nairobi College,” 44.
34. Ibid.
35. Martha Biondi, The Black Revolution on Campus (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 222.
36. Hansonia Caldwell and Hale Smith, “A Man of Many Parts,” Black Perspective in Music 3, no. 1 (Spring 1975): 74.
37. Angelika Beener, “Five Jazz Songs That Speak of the Freedom Struggle,” National Public Radio, June 19, 2012, http://www.npr.org/sections/ablogsupreme/2012/06/18/155318747/five-jazz-songs-which-speak-of-the-freedom-struggle (retrieved December 16, 2015).
38. Willard Jenkins, “Roy Haynes: Force of Nature,” Jazz Times, November 1997, http://jazztimes.com/articles/24743-roy-haynes-force-of-nature (retrieved December 16, 2015).
39. Vivian Williams, New York Amsterdam News, April 26, 1969.
40. Roger Ebert, “Brewster McCloud Review,” RogerEbert.com, December 24, 1970, http://www.rogerebert.com/reviews/brewster-mccloud-1970 (retrieved December 16, 2015).
41. “Lena Horne to Present Black Artists in Tribute to Late Dr. Bethune,” Pittsburgh Courier, January 8, 1972.
42. Stella G. White, “Negro Anthem Worth Hearing,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, May 23, 1970.
43. Quoted in Bond and Wilson, Lift Every Voice and Sing, 252.
44. John Hope Franklin, Gerald Horne, Harold W. Cruse, Allen B. Ballard, and Reavis L. Mitchell Jr., “Black History Month: Serious Truth Telling or a Triumph in Tokenism?,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 18 (Winter 1997–98): 91.
45. Shana Redmond, Anthem: Social Movements and the Sound of Solidarity (New York: New York University Press, 2013), 192.
46. Robert Hayden and Michael Harper, “Robert Hayden and Michael Harper: A Literary Friendship,” Callaloo 17, no. 4 (Autumn 1994): 980–1016.
47. Paule Marshall, Triangular Road: A Memoir (New York: Basic Books, 2010), 157.
CHAPTER SEVEN
1. Cuda Brown, “Meanderings 1.06,” June 11, 1994, http://www.newsavanna.com/meanderings/me106/me10602.html (retrieved December 20, 2015).
2. Stella G. White, “New Level of Black Unity,” Cleveland Plain Dealer, June 28, 1971.
3. Chicago Metro News, May 7, 1986, 17.
4. David Schultz, “David’s Notes,” Chicago Metro News, February 1, 1986.
5. Ibid.
6. Ferman Mentrell Beckless, “Bulls Welcome Singing of Negro Anthem,” Chicago Metro News, February 1, 1986.
7. Sam Attlesley, “Black Voters: Army without General,” Dallas Morning News, October 29, 1979.
8. Kenneth R. Walker, “Pessimism Running Deep as Urban League Meets: Recuperating Jordan Addresses Members,” Evening Star/Washington (D.C.) Star, August 4, 1980.
9. Ibid.
10. Nathaniel Clay, Clay Images, “How Blacks Can Get out of Poverty,” Chicago Metro News, September 7, 1985.
11. Beckless, “Bulls Welcome Singing of Negro Anthem.”
12. Quoted in Julian Bond and Sonya Kathryn Wilson, eds., Lift Every Voice and Sing: A Celebration of the Negro National Anthem, 100 Years, 100 Voices (New York: Random House, 2000).
13. David Remnick, The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama (New York: Knopf, 2010).
AFTERWORD
1. Lara Pellegrinelli, “Poetic License Raises a Star-Spangled Debate,” All Things Considered, National Public Radio, July 3, 2009.
2. Paul Beatty, Slumberland (London: Bloomsbury, 2008), 226.
3. Julie Daunt, “Clifford Owens: Pushing the Boundaries of Performance,” Culture Trip, https://theculturetrip.com/north-america/usa/new-york/articles/clifford-owens-pushing-the-boundaries-of-performance/ (retrieved April 15, 2017).
Index
A. C. Bilbrew Choir of Los Angeles, 143
Adams, George, 187
Adams, Yolanda, 223
Affirmative action programs, 194, 206–7, 214
Africa: and European colonialism, 27, 60, 92, 112, 123, 136, 142; home rule for Africans, 32; Marcus Garvey’s inauguration as “president” of, 33; paternalistic assumptions concerning, 36; pageants depicting history of, 41, 42; and postwar settlement, 122; W. E. B. DuBois on, 128; Alphaeus Hunton on, 135–36; Malcolm X in, 165; postcolonial nations in, 168; cultural resources of, 175, 176; aid to, 206. See also specific countries
African American history: pageants depicting, 40–41, 42; Walter Daykin on, 61–63; and Dunbar High School, Washington, D.C., 78; and curricula, 80, 104; and Negro History Week programs, 89, 91, 96, 97, 98; resources for teaching of, 90; and Carter G. Woodson, 91–92; and Gertrude Parthenia McBrown, 101–2; and out-of-school learning communities, 101–2; and Herb Aptheker, 134; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 194
African American studies, 11, 92–93
African Blood Brotherhood (ABB), 55, 56
African Communities League, 32
African Legion, 32
African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, 76, 96, 107
African National Congress, 208
Afro-American modernism, 67
Agricultural Adjustment Administration, 59
Alabama, 75. See also specific cities
Alabama Christian Movement for Civil Rights, 152
Alabama Negro Education Association, 74
Alabama State Teachers Association, 145
Alabama State University, 95
Albany, Ga., 149–52
Aldridge, Ira, 102
Ali, Muhammad, 191
All African People’s Conference (1959), 143
Alpha Phi Alpha, 129
Altman, Robert, 190–91
Aluminum Ore Company, 33
“Amen,” 200
“America” (“My Country ‘Tis of Thee”), 37, 102, 114, 115, 121, 141, 174
American Association of University Women, 137
American Baptist Publication Society of Philadelphia, 106
American Communist Party, 134
American dream, 172, 193, 205–6
American Federation of Labor (AFL), 56
Americans All (CBS series), 112–13
American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP), 70–71
“America the Beautiful,” 84, 86
Amsterdam News, 190
Anderson, Benedict, 39
Anderson, James D., 76, 82
Anderson, Marian, 97, 195
Angelou,
Maya: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, 107–9; and “Cabaret for Freedom,” 148–49; The Heart of a Woman, 148–49; interview with Angela Davis, 173–74
Animism, 40
Anna T. Strickland Art Club, Fort Smith, Ark., 90
Antifascist parties, 61
Antilynching activism, 14, 59
Aptheker, Herb, 134
Archibald, Nyota, 177
Armstrong, Denise, 184
Armstrong, Louis, 82
Artis, William, 68
Art Reynolds Singers, 190
Asberry, Nettie, 96
Asia, 112, 123
Askew, Timothy, xiii
Assignment America, 173–74
Assimilation, 16, 170
Associated Negro Press (ANP), 65, 69
Association for the Study of Negro Life and History (ASNLH), 62, 91, 92, 194–95
Atlanta Daily World, 119, 127
Atlanta University, 3–4, 30, 40, 79, 80, 95–96
Attlesley, Sam, 205
Attucks, Crispus, 84, 102, 162
Augusta Chronicle, 106
Austin, Patti, 211
Azikiwe, Nnamdi, 123, 135
Bach, J. S., 60
Baez, Joan, 159
Bahamas, 1–2, 20
Bailey, Charity Abigail, 150
Bailey, Eben H., 16
Baker, Ella, 147
Baker, Houston, 67, 92
Baker, Rachel, 103
Baker, Scott, 105
Baldwin, James, 154; The Fire Next Time, 167
Ballard, Allen B., 195–96
Baltimore, Md., 224
Baltimore Afro-American, 37, 46, 56–57
Banneker, Benjamin, 162
Baptist Sunday School of Falls Church, Va., 90–91
Baraka, Amiri, 175–76, 186, 201; “Funk Lore,” 176; Home on the Range, 176, 191
Barrett, Barren, 211
Basie, Count, 114
“The Battle Hymn of the Republic,” 32, 86, 96, 111, 121, 199
Beatty, Paul, Slumberland, 220–21
Belafonte, Harry, 149, 159, 224
Benét, Stephen Vincent, 96, 199
Bennett, Gwendolyn, 70; “To Usward,” 43–44
Berea College, 79
Bernardin, Joseph, 203
Bessemer Voters League, 152–53
Bethel Literary Society, 233n21
Bethune, Mary McLeod, 74, 93, 94, 95, 145
Beulah Rucker Oliver School, Gainesville, Ga., 80–81
Biggers, Sanford, 221
Biko, Steven, I Write What I Like, 175
Biondi, Martha, 133–34, 185
“Birdsongs at Eventide,” 115
Birmingham, Ala.: white mob attack on black Americans, 124; black radio stations in, 152, 153; Children’s Crusade of 1963, 152, 156; civil rights movement in, 152–54, 156; bombing of Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, 155–56
Birmingham Industrial High School, 174
Birmingham World, 153
Black agency, and NAACP, 32
Black Americans: as multiracial, 14; racism toward, 14; as hero of “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 19, 20; and Christianity, 20; transnational identity of, 20–21, 42; economic status of, 23, 60, 61; “linked fate” for, 24, 232n47; mobilization of, 25; migration of, 26, 58, 88–89; conflict between, 47, 55; and Democratic Party, 58, 205–6, 210; mixed-race blacks as hybridized, 64; lobbying for public education, 73, 74; mythology of lower intelligence, 80, 104; and conceptions of inferiority, 98, 104, 107, 209; and World War II, 111, 115, 117, 121; ties to black diaspora, 142; and militancy, 167; as consumer base, 192–93, 195, 204, 207–8, 210, 211–12; and Barack Obama, 218–19
Black artistic production: and black formalism, 11; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 66, 137, 161–62; and Frederick Douglass, 68, 138, 162; and Negro History Week, 93; and SNYC, 124. See also Black Arts Movement; Black musicians; Black writers and literature; Visual arts; and specific artists
Black Arts Movement, 167, 174, 175–76, 213
Black associationalism: growth in, 5–6, 8, 16; role of schools in, 72, 86–87, 102, 105; and out-of-school learning communities, 90–91, 101; community and institutional benefits of, 95, 103; and black political life, 116, 121, 139, 145, 153; and black artistic production, 138; and black formalism, 145, 146; reimagining of, 168, 173, 179, 225; and black power, 173; erosion of, 179, 195–96, 217, 222– 23; and black imprisonment, 215
Black Cabinet, 112
Black churches: and black formalism, 12, 151; as earliest black institutions, 20, 83; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 23, 24, 36, 46–47, 83, 89–90, 104; and black radicalism, 60; schools compared to, 74; and larger black world, 85; centrality in black life, 87; and civil rights movement, 148
Black citizenship: denial of full citizenship, 1, 5, 13, 18–19, 71, 83, 110–11, 156, 167; and Reconstruction era, 2, 5, 18, 112; and voting rights, 3, 4–5, 125, 156, 158–59; Marcus Garvey on, 28; Black National Anthem as anathema to goals of, 37–38; Walter Daykin on, 63; and philanthropists’ restrictions on education for blacks, 82; Robert Smalls advocating for, 82; Martin Luther King Jr. on, 110–11; aspirations for full citizenship, 112, 114–15, 143, 156; and democracy, 114, 115, 117
Black civic life: and “Life Every Voice and Sing,” xiv, 18–19, 23, 37, 104; and voting rights, 3, 4–5, 125, 156, 158–59; in early twentieth century, 4; growth in organizations, 5–6, 9, 12, 36; in late nineteenth century, 8, 12; and larger black world, 85; in North, 89; and Negro History Week, 91, 96; whites’ unawareness of, 96
Black consciousness, 166, 167, 175–76, 178, 181, 182, 183, 190
Black Cross nurses, 32
Black culture: and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” xi, xiv, 15–16, 20, 58, 66, 70; and social class, xi, 65, 196, 214; and black formalism, 8, 9–12, 19, 70, 82, 139; and “high” and “low” culture, 10, 11, 12, 52; freedom represented in, 10, 45; Alain Locke on, 25–26; African retentions present in, 39; and New Negro Era, 42–43; and social music, 48–51; and folk culture, 54; and leftist politics, 61; Thomas Gilbert Standing on, 64; and Communist Party, 66; in curricula, 80; liturgical structure in, 87; research in, 92; and mass media, 113–14, 144; and civil rights movement, 142; and black power, 181–82; and Kwanzaa, 184, 185, 196; commodification of, 196; and spirituals, 211; and hip-hop, 212–13; and postblackness, 219–21
Black diaspora: Johnson brothers as sons of, 1–2, 20; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 20–21; and Marcus Garvey, 28; and NAACP, 36; and Negro Society for Historical Research, 92; and postwar settlement, 122; black Americans’ ties to, 142
Black educational life: role of “Lift Every Voice and Sing” in, xiv, 72–73, 78–79, 80, 81–89, 93, 96, 97, 98–99, 100, 104, 109, 115, 149, 150, 180–81; and private schools, 3–4, 76, 88, 93–95, 99–100; growth in, 5; and Booker T. Washington, 7, 87, 89; and black formalism, 9–11, 12, 79, 81–82, 85, 90–91, 106, 108, 198–99; graduation programs, 16, 36, 80, 85, 87, 94, 108–9, 115, 215; and industrial education, 30, 63–64, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 88; and classical education, 30, 74, 79, 95; and pageants, 40, 86, 97, 184; and building of schools, 72, 74, 75, 77, 79, 100, 168; and funding for black schools, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 81, 82–83, 86; and funding for high schools, 73, 74, 78, 79–80, 100; and expansion of educational access, 74, 76, 79–80, 85, 100; philanthropy for, 75, 76, 82, 88, 107; and black schools as community centers, 76–78, 87, 93; and Jeanes teachers, 77–78; and naming of black schools, 78, 82, 91; and curricula, 79, 80, 83, 88, 95–96, 98–99, 104; and black teachers, 80–81, 82, 84, 85–86, 88, 89, 90, 91–93, 98, 99–100, 104, 105, 179, 182; and county training schools, 81, 82, 107; and music education, 83; and guided group singing, 84; and larger black world, 84–85; and “School Improvement Day” programs, 86; and educational associations, 86–87; and development of black children, 86–87, 90, 105, 106; South compared to North, 88–90; and Negro History Week, 89, 91, 92, 93–98, 105; and out-of-school learning communities, 90–91, 98, 101–2; and laboratory schools, 95–96; and bookmobile services, 101; and school desegregation, 103–6, 14
6, 179, 180, 181, 190, 193–94; and cosmopolitanism of black school culture, 113; and World War II, 117; and SNYC, 124–25; and black power, 181–82; and busing crisis, 193–94. See also School segregation
Black elites, 64–65, 179, 211
Black English, 184
Black entrepreneurship, 196–97
Black formalism: and ritual practices, 7, 8, 9–10, 11, 12, 33, 35, 82, 110, 115, 223; emergence of, 7–8, 12; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 7–10, 12–13, 15–16, 22, 35, 42, 47–48, 79, 81–82, 85, 90, 192, 199, 222, 225; as internal to black community, 8; and black culture, 8, 9–12, 19, 70, 82, 139; and vernacular form, 8, 10–11, 12, 22, 67, 212; and working-class blacks, 8, 52; and black educational life, 9–11, 12, 79, 81–82, 85, 90–91, 106, 108, 198–99; and Emancipation Day, 15–16; theatricality of, 67; and grooming, attire, and comportment, 82, 110; in North, 89; as foundation for freedom movement, 95, 145, 146; as public face of black community for mass media, 113; and black associational life, 145, 146; and civil rights movement, 151; and centennial of Emancipation Proclamation, 153; and black power, 176; and classical tradition, 177; commitment to, 195; loss of, 222
Black free enterprise, 207
Black History Month: expansion of Negro History Week, 176–77, 194, 244n20; and “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 177, 211, 215, 222, 224–25; purpose of, 194–96; Chicago Bulls basketball game dedicated to, 203–4
Black History Week. See Negro History Week programs
Black identity: “Lift Every Voice and Sing” as signifier of, 26, 42, 46, 51, 55, 56, 72–73, 84, 90, 93, 95, 96, 98, 100, 109, 194, 200, 218, 223; and International Convention of the Negro Peoples of the World, 33; and symbolism of biblical Ethiopia, 40; and black political life, 63–64, 118; in visual arts, 70; and larger black world, 84–85, 118, 127, 128–29, 165, 200; W. E. B. DuBois on double consciousness of, 86–87, 121; and black educational life, 88; and Americana, 114, 117, 118, 122, 125, 127, 218; and World War II, 117–18; and postblackness, 219–21
Black imprisonment, 215, 223
Black internationalism, 29, 32–33, 60, 129, 133, 142, 200
Black liberation, 176, 209
Black Lives Matter, 224
Black migrants, 26–27, 186, 189, 212–13, 214
Black musicians: publishing of, 5; musical forms created by, 5, 16; and ASCAP anniversary celebration of 1939, 71; and civil rights movement, 147, 223; arrangements of “Lift Every Voice and Sing,” 186–90, 214. See also specific musicians and types of music
