20 New York Times, 18 November 1920, quoted in Fischer, Louis, Oil Imperialism: The International Struggle for Petroleum, London, 1926, p. 219.
21 Ibid., p. 220.
22 Ibid., pp. 220–1.
23 McBeth, British Oil Policy, p. 59.
24 Quoted in Shwadran, B., The Middle East, Oil and the Great Powers, New York, 1955, 3rd edn, 1973, p. 219.
25 TNA, CAB 24/125.
26 TNA, CAB 24/134, quoted in Bennett, British Foreign Policy, p. 116.
27 Ibid., p. 136; TNA, CO 730/29/60539.
28 TNA, CAB 21/119, letter of Edwin Montagu to Viscount Harcourt, 23 December 1918.
29 Stivers, Supremacy and Oil, pp. 30, 110; TNA, CAB 23/43.
30 TNA, ADM 116/2692, letters to Shuckburgh, 19 November, 4 December and 8 December 1928.
31 DNB.
32 MacMillan, Margaret, Paris 1919, New York, 2001, p. 373; BL, MSS Eur F 112/274.
33 Quoted in Earle, ‘The Turkish Petroleum Company’, p. 273.
34 TNA, ADM 116/2652, pp. 16–66.
35 Ibid., pp. 77, 84–5.
36 Fischer, Oil Imperialism, p. 244.
37 TNA, ADM 116/2692, p. 60.
38 Ibid., pp. 290–1, letter from M. Berthelot, 31 May 1929.
39 TNA, CAB 27/436.
40 Ibid., p. 45, Iraq Oil Committee, 4 February 1931.
41 TNA, ADM 116/2692, p. 407.
42 TNA, CAB 27/436, p. 137.
Chapter 3: Monarchy and Revolution
1 Iraq Times, 16 November 1933, quoted in MECA, Sinderson papers.
2 Khadduri, Majid, Independent Iraq 1932–1958: A Study in Iraqi Politics, London, 1960, pp. 40–3.
3 MacMillan, Margaret, Paris 1919, New York, 2001, pp. 387, 389.
4 Lawrence, T. E., The Letters of T. E. Lawrence, selected and edited by Malcolm Brown, London, 1988, p. 350, letter dated 18 October 1927.
5 Morris, James, The Hashemite Kings, London, 1959, p. 83.
6 Bell, Gertrude, Letters of Gertrude Bell, selected and edited by Gladys Bell, London, 1987, p. 537, letter to Sir Hugh Bell, 1 March 1923; ibid., p. 538, letter dated 10 April 1923.
7 Ibid., p. 576, letter to Florence Bell, her stepmother, 14 December 1924.
8 Sluglett, Peter, Britain in Iraq 1914–1932, London, 1976, pp. 221–2.
9 Samara, Ihsan Hani, ‘The Economic Growth of Iraq: The Role of Oil Revenues, Government Policies and Strategies since 1950’, unpublished PhD thesis, University College of Swansea, University of Wales, 1980, pp. 83–7, 90.
10 Longrigg, Stephen Hemsley, Iraq 1900 to 1950: A Political, Social and Economic History, London, 1953, p. 278.
11 Main, Ernest, Iraq from Mandate to Independence, London, 1935, pp. 20–1.
12 Ibid., p. 33.
13 Batatu, Hanna, The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq, Princeton, 1978, p. 1115.
14 Time, 17 April 1939; Morris, The Hashemite Kings, p. 145; Simon, Reeva Spector, Iraq between the Two World Wars: The Militarist Origins of Tyranny, New York, 1986, rev. edn 2004, p. 38; Iraq Times, 4 February 1937, in MECA, Sinderson papers.
15 Mansfield, Peter, Kuwait: Vanguard of the Gulf, London, 1990, p. 22.
16 Iraq Times, 7 April 1939, in MECA, Sinderson papers.
17 Gulbenkian, Nubar, Pantaraxia, London, 1965, p. 167.
18 Caractacus, Revolution in Iraq: An Essay in Comparative Public Opinion, London, 1959, p. 78.
19 Iraq Times, 20 February 1936, in MECA, Sinderson papers; Encyclopaedia Britannia, 1911 edn.
20 Marr, Phebe, The Modern History of Iraq, 2nd edn, Boulder, Colorado, 2004, p. 51.
21 Ibid.; Morris, The Hashemite Kings, p. 158.
22 Khadduri, Independent Iraq, pp. 184–5.
23 Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, pp. 53–5; Khadduri, Independent Iraq, p. 175.
24 Khadduri, Independent Iraq, p. 224.
25 TNA, CAB 80/28.
26 Time, 17 June 1957.
27 Birdwood, Lord, Nuri As-Said: A Study in Arab Leadership, London, 1959, p. 2.
28 Gallman, Waldemar J., Iraq under General Nuri: My Recollections of Nuri al-Said, 1954–1958, Baltimore, 1964, pp. 90, 172.
29 MECA, Perowne papers.
30 Morris, The Hashemite Kings, pp. 169, 189–90.
31 Samara, ‘The Economic Growth of Iraq’, p. 69.
32 For the annual reports of the IPC, see BP Archive, University of Warwick.
33 Samara, ‘The Economic Growth of Iraq’, p. 104.
34 Ibid., p. 85.
35 Batatu, The Old Social Classes, p. 34.
36 Salter, Lord, The Development of Iraq: A Plan of Action, London, 1955, pp. 115, 146.
37 Gallman, Iraq under General Nuri, pp. 17, 53.
38 Iraq Times, 2 May 1953; Liwa al-Jihad, 5 May 1955, in MECA, Sinderson papers.
39 Gallman, Iraq under General Nuri, p. 203.
40 Fernea, Robert A., and Louis, William Roger (eds), The Iraq Revolution of 1958: The Old Social Classes Revisited, London, 1991, p. viii.
41 Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, p. 78; Gallman, Iraq under General Nuri, p. 203; Morris, The Hashemite Kings, p. 198.
42 Caractacus, Revolution in Iraq, pp. 126–7; Birdwood, Nuri As-Said, p. 266; Batatu, The Old Social Classes, p. 801.
43 Forbes, Colin D., Innocent in a Revolution, Lewes, 1999, p. 76.
44 Astarjian, Henry, The Struggle for Kirkuk: The Rise of Hussein, Oil and the Death of Tolerance in Iraq, London, 2007, p. 53.
45 Morris, The Hashemite Kings, p. 199.
46 Gallman, Iraq under General Nuri, p. 203.
Chapter 4: Saddam Hussein and Beyond
1 MECA, Cornwallis papers.
2 James, Morris, The Hashemite Kings, London, 1959, pp. 186, 17.
3 Ferneu, Robert A., and Louis, William Roger (eds), The Iraqi Revolution of 1958: The Old Social Classes Revisited, New York, p. vi (Foreword by Albert Hourani).
4 Shwadran, B., The Middle East, Oil and the Great Powers, New York, 1955, 3rd edn, 1973, pp. 242–4.
5 Ibid., p. 267.
6 Astarjian, Henry, The Struggle for Kirkuk: The Rise of Hussein, Oil and the Death of Tolerance in Iraq, London, 2007, p. 157.
7 Marr, Phebe, The Modern History of Iraq, 2nd edn, Boulder, Colorado, 2004, p. 111.
8 Ibid., p. 102.
9 Astarjian, The Struggle for Kirkuk, p. 158.
10 TNA, PREM 13/2171, letter from Tom Bridges to J. O. Wright, Foreign Office, 2 February 1965.
11 TNA, FCO 54/35.
12 Ibid., letter from H. St J. B. Armitage at British Embassy in Beirut to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 21 December 1967.
13 The Times, 28 December 1967, ‘Russia moves into middle east oil’, quoted in TNA, FCO 54/35.
14 TNA, FCO 67/179, telegram from Baghdad to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 30 October 1968.
15 Ibid., telegram from Baghdad to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 17 October 1968.
16 Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, p. 139.
17 TNA, FCO 67/179, quoted in telegram from Baghdad to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 21 November 1968.
18 Ibid., telegram from Baghdad to Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 22 October 1968.
19 TNA, FCO 67/180, letter from J. T. Fearnley to N. C. Hibbs, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 17 January 1969.
20 Interview with Dr Rifa’i, in Middle East Economic Survey, vol. XII, no. 14, 31 January 1969, p. 2.
21 Brown, Michael, E., ‘The Nationalization of the Iraq Petroleum Company’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 1979, vol. 10, pp. 107–24, at pp. 114, 123.
22 Coughlin, Con, Saddam: The Secret Life, London, 2002, p. 106.
23 Chabrun, Laurent, and Heriot, Franck, Les Corrompus de Saddam Hussein, Paris, 2006, p. 20.
24 Quoted in Saint-Prot, Charles, Saddam Hussein: un gaullisme arabe?, Paris, 1987, p. 109.
25 Matar, Fuad, Saddam Hussein: The Man, the Cause and the Future, London, 1981, p. 31.
26 Ibid., pp. 168–9.
27 Saddam Hussein, On Oil N
ationalisation in Iraq, Baghdad, 1973, pp. 8, 10.
28 TNA, FCO 55/1116, letter from Tom Boardman to Sir Alec Douglas-Home, [n.d.] August 1973.
29 Ibid., letter from Robin Butler, 10 August 1973.
30 Ibid., memo by Anthony Parsons, 26 July 1973.
31 Ibid., 2nd draft memorandum, 17 July 1973.
32 Ibid., letter from Robin Butler, Cabinet Office, to Charles Cruickshank, 20 August 1973; letter from C. J. A. Chivers, Treasury, to Richard Dales, Energy Department, 23 August 1973.
33 Ibid., ‘Proposal for an Oil and Agricultural Development Project for Iraq’, 1st draft, 26 September 1973.
34 Ibid., letter from P. R. H. Wright, 30 October 1973.
35 Ibid., letter from S. L. Egerton to Anthony Parsons, 3 December 1973.
36 Ibid., letter from P. R. H. Wright to S. L. Egerton and A. Parsons, 21 November 1973.
37 Saint-Prot, Saddam Hussein, pp. 215, 222.
38 Matar, Saddam Hussein, p. 181.
39 Ibid., p. 165.
40 Alnasrawi, Abbas, The Economy of Iraq: Oil, Wars, Destruction of Development and Prospects 1950–2010, London, 1994, p. 70.
41 Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, p. 162.
42 Chabrun and Heriot, Les Corrumpus de Saddam Hussein, p. 20.
43 Tripp, Charles, A History of Iraq, Cambridge, 2000, 3rd edn, 2007, p. 206.
44 Fuerlig, Henner, Saddam Hussein–der neue Saladdin? Irak und der Golf Krieg, Berlin, 1991, p. 101.
45 Wakin, Edward, Contemporary Political Leaders of the Middle East, New York, 1996, p. 20.
46 Matar, Saddam Hussein, p. 7.
47 Alnasrawi, The Economy of Iraq, p. 105; Galbraith, Peter, The End of Iraq: How American Incompetence Created a War without End, New York, 2006, p. 37.
48 Marr, The Modern History of Iraq, p. 221; Tripp, A History of Iraq, p. 242.
49 Verma, Sonia, ‘Iraq could have largest oil reserves in the world’, The Times, 20 May 2008.
50 Gulf Oil and Gas, ‘Iraq issues tenders to drill 40 oil wells’, 16 February 2009.
51 International Herald Tribune, ‘Iraq reopens its oil reserves to foreign companies, but few rush in’, 3 February 2009.
Chapter 5: Land for Sale
1 BL, MSS Eur F 85/29A, H. M. Lawrence papers, Punjab Intelligence, Lahore, 1 March 1846.
2 Caroe, Sir Olaf, The Pathans 550 B.C.–A.D. 1957, Oxford, 1959, p. 257.
3 Allen, Charles, The Soldier Sahibs, London, 2000, p. 60.
4 Hardinge, Viscount, Life of Hardinge, Rulers of India Series, Oxford, 1891, p. 71.
5 BL, MSS Eur F 85/48, Hardinge papers, letter from Hardinge to Lawrence, 27 April 1846.
6 Younghusband, Francis, Kashmir, London, 1924, p. 147.
7 Napier, Sir William, The Life and Opinions of General Sir Charles James Napier, 4 vols, London, 1857, vol. IV, p. 128, letter dated 28 October 1846.
8 Ibid., vol. III, p. 419, letter from Charles Napier to his brother William Napier, 8 November 1846; ibid., p. 475, letter from Charles Napier to his brother, 15 November 1846.
9 Ibid., pp. 410, 455.
10 BL, MSS Eur F 213/23, Dalhousie papers, letter from Queen Victoria, 30 July 1849.
11 Singh, Khushwant, The Sikhs, London, 1953, p. 79.
12 BL, MSS Eur F 213/23, letter from Dalhousie to Sir Charles Napier, [n.d.] November 1849; letter from Dalhousie to Queen Victoria, 20 January 1851.
13 Napier, Life of Charles Napier, vol. IV, p. 27.
14 Hardinge, Hardinge, p. 138.
15 Allen, Soldier Sahibs, pp. 10–12, 47.
16 Napier, Life of Charles Napier, vol. III, p. 459, in a letter dated 6 November 1846.
17 BL, MSS Eur F 213/25, letter from Colonel Henry Steinbach to Lord Dalhousie, 4 August 1851.
18 Morgan, Gerald, Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Central Asia 1810–1895, London, 1981, p. 107.
19 DNB.
20 Hopkirk, Peter, The Great Game: On Secret Service in High Asia, London, 1990, p. 1.
21 BL, MSS Eur B 380/2, Mayo papers, letters to the Duke of Argyll, letter from Mayo to Argyll, 1 July 1869.
22 Warikoo, K., Central Asia and Kashmir: A Study in the Context of Anglo-Russian Rivalry, New Delhi, 1989, pp. 206–7.
23 BL, MSS Eur B 380/4, Mayo papers, letter to Duke of Argyll, 10 May 1870.
24 DNB.
25 BL, MSS Eur B 380/4, letters dated 31 January 1870, 8 February 1870, 10 May 1870.
26 Khan, Mohammad Ishaq, History of Srinagar 1846–1947: A Study in Socio-Cultural Change, Srinagar, 1978, p. 79.
27 Ibid., p. 80.
28 Ibid., p. 24.
29 Warikoo, Central Asia and Kashmir, p. 147.
30 Lamb, Alastair, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846–1990, Hertingfordbury, 1991, p. 29.
31 Cannadine, David, Ornamentalism, London, 2001, pp. 43–5.
32 Lethbridge, Sir Roper, The Golden Book of India: A Genealogical and Biographical Dictionary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other Personages, Titled or Decorated of the Indian Empire, London, 1893, pp. xi, xix–xxiii.
33 Copland, Ian, The Princes of India in the Endgame of Empire 1917–1947, Cambridge, 1997, pp. 8, 21.
34 Ibid., p. 45; Ramusack, Barbara N., The Indian Princes and their States, Cambridge, 2004, p. 90.
35 Wavell, Lord, The Viceroy’s Journal, ed. Penderel Moon, London, 1973, p. 463.
36 Fisher, Michael H., ‘Indirect Rule in the British Empire: The Foundations of the Residency System in India (1764–1858)’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 18, no. 3, 1984, pp. 393–428, at p. 403.
37 Teng, M. K., Bhatt, R. K. K., and Bhatt, S. K., Kashmir Constitutional History and Documents, New Delhi, 1977, p. 248, Report on the affairs of the State of Jammu and Kashmir by the Resident in Kashmir, 5 March 1888.
38 French, Patrick, Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer, London, 1994, p. 264.
39 Schofield, Victoria, Kashmir in the Crossfire, London, 1996, p. 81; Ramusack, Barbara N., The Princes of India in the Twilight of Empire: Dissolution of a Patron–Client System 1914–1919, Columbus, Ohio, 1978, p. 138; Copland, Ian, State, Community and Neighbourhood in Princely North India c. 1900–1950, Basingstoke, 2005, p. 53.
40 BL, MSS Eur F 111/256, Curzon papers.
41 See French, Younghusband, title-page.
42 Ibid., p. 402.
43 BL, MSS Eur F 197/111, Younghusband papers.
44 Ibid., speech at state banquet, 26 June 1908.
45 Ibid., speech at state banquet, 8 December 1909; letters of Younghusband to his wife, [n.d.] 1906 and 4 November 1907.
46 BL, IOR R/1/1/633, ‘Enhancement of the administrative powers of his highness the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir subject to certain conditions’, memo written by R. E. Holland, 19 September 1918.
47 BL, MSS Eur Photo Eur 33, letter in German with Indian and English translation from Count Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg (1856–1921), German Chancellor 1909–17, to the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir.
48 BL, IOR R/1/1/633, Memorandum from Resident Lieutenant Colonel A. D’A. G. Bannerman, 9 October 1918; letter from Bannerman to Holland.
49 Schofield, Kashmir in the Crossfire, p. 57.
Chapter 6: The World of Sir Hari Singh
1 French, Patrick, Younghusband: The Last Great Imperial Adventurer, London, 1994, pp. 270, 269.
2 Quoted from the Mayo College website, www.mayocollege.com.
3 BL, IOR R/1/1/917, letter from J. B. Wood to Lieutenant Colonel Bannerman, 17 November 1917; letter from Bannerman to Wood, 19 November 1917.
4 Ibid., letter from Bannerman to Wood, 26 December 1917.
5 Ibid., collection of papers entitled ‘Kashmir affairs, 1917’.
6 BL, MSS Eur F 118/83, Lord Reading papers, letter from Hari Singh to Sir Pratap Singh, 1 October 1921.
7 Time, 5 May 1961, ‘The Shivering Maharaja’.
8 BL, IOR R/1/1/1788, letter from the Earl of Birkenhead, Secretary of State for India, to the Viceroy, 19 January 1928.
9 Ibid., E. B. Howell, ‘Note on
Colonel Ward’s Case’.
10 Ibid., letter from Viscount Peel, Secretary of State for India, to the Viceroy, 8 May 1928.
11 New York Times, 9 April 1922, ‘Montagu’s successor’.
12 BL, IOR R/1/1/1788, letter of Viscount Peel, Secretary of State for India, to the Viceroy, 29 November 1928.
13 Ibid., letter from Maharaja Hari Singh to Viscount Peel, 4 March 1929.
14 Ibid., letter from the Resident to Charles Watson, 9 February 1928.
15 BL, IOR R/1/1/2123, letters from the Resident to Charles Watson, 18 May, 11 June and 28 November 1931.
16 BL, IOR R/1/4/166, memorandum by B. J. Glancy, 23 January 1940; memorandum dated 5 February 1940.
17 BL, IOR R/1/1/293, memorandum by B. J. Glancy, 28 January 1939.
18 Singh, Karan, Autobiography, Bombay, 1989, pp. 15–16.
19 Wakhlu, Somnath, Hari Singh: The Maharaja, the Man, the Times, New Delhi, 2004, p. 54.
20 Singh, Autobiography, p. 31.
21 Khan, Mohammad Ishaq, History of Srinagar 1846–1947: A Study in Socio-Cultural Change, Srinagar, 1978, pp. 204, 159.
22 Ibid., p. 174.
23 Birdwood, Lord, Two Nations and Kashmir, London, 1956, p. 21.
24 Neve, Ernest F., Beyond the Pir Panjal: Life and Missionary Enterprise in Kashmir, London, 1914, p. 28.
25 Younghusband, Francis, Kashmir, London, 1924, pp. 113, 107.
26 BL, MSS Eur C 419, Burton papers, Doris Hargreaves Burton, ‘Two months leave in Kashmir written in 1910–1914’.
27 BL, MSS Eur D 1003/1, Morton papers.
28 Lamb, Alastair, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846–1990, Hertingfordbury, 1991, p. 84.
29 Neve, Beyond the Pir Panjal, p. 47.
30 Lamb, Kashmir, p. 87.
31 Singh, Bawa Satinder, The Jammu Fox: A Biography of Maharaja Gulab Singh of Kashmir 1792–1857, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1974, p. 176.
32 BL, MSS Eur F 164/25A, Mudie papers, ‘Kashmir before Accession’.
33 Singh, Autobiography, p. 3.
34 Lamb, Kashmir, p. 89.
35 Copland, Ian, ‘Islam and Political Mobilization in Kashmir 1931–1934’, Pacific Affairs, vol. 54, no. 2, summer 1981, pp. 228–59, at p. 243. This article is perhaps the most thorough account of the 1931 disturbances.
36 BL, IOR R/1/1/2261 (2) Govt. of India Foreign and Political Department paper, file no. 204, 1932; letter from Kashyap Bandhu, 25 January 1932.
Ghosts of Empire Page 48
