37 Ibid., ‘Draft Address to be presented to his excellency the Viceroy by the members of the all-India Kashmir Committee’, 25 February 1932.
38 Ibid., ‘Reply to Muslim delegation’, [n.d.] April 1932.
39 Birdwood, Two Nations and Kashmir, pp. 34–5.
40 Copland, ‘Islam and Political Mobilization’, p. 246.
41 BL, MSS Eur D 862, Powell papers, ‘Jammu & Kashmir State, 1947’.
42 Teng, M. K., Bhatt, R. K. K., and Bhatt, S. K., Kashmir Constitutional History and Documents, New Delhi, 1977, ‘Presidential Address of Dr Sir Muhammad Iqbal delivered at the Allahabad Session of the All India Muslim League’, [n.d.] December 1930, p. 336.
43 BL, MSS Eur D 704, Ahmed Shah papers, ‘Political Note on the Kashmir Problem’, given to Morgan Price MP, 20 October 1948.
44 Singh, Autobiography, p. 39.
45 Quoted in Kapur, M. L. (ed.), Maharaja Hari Singh, New Delhi, 1995, p. 52.
46 Teng, Bhatt and Bhatt, Kashmir Documents, ‘Proclamation of Maharaja Hari Singh’, 9 July 1931, p. 342.
47 Copland, Ian, ‘The Abdullah Factor: Kashmiri Muslims and the Crisis of 1947’, in Low, D. A. (ed.), The Political Inheritance of Pakistan, London, 1991, pp. 218–54, at pp. 220–1.
48 BL, MSS Eur D 862, Powell’s papers. This rather bizarre episode is recounted fully in Powell’s manuscripts.
49 Wavell, Lord, The Viceroy’s Journal, ed. Penderel Moon, London, 1973, p. 177, entry dated 17 October 1945.
50 Lamb, Kashmir, p. 117.
51 Ziegler, Philip, Mountbatten, London, 1985, p. 473.
52 Roberts, Andrew, Eminent Churchillians, London, 1994, p. 104.
53 BL, MSS Eur D 862, Powell’s papers.
54 Wakhlu, Hari Singh, pp. 163–4.
55 BL, MSS Eur Photo Eur 393, Wavell papers, letter to H. M. Close, 13 December 1949. Wavell died on 24 May 1950.
Chapter 7: Deadlock
1 Lamb, Alastair, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, Hertingfordbury, 1991, p. 101.
2 Collins, Larry, and Lapierre, Dominique, Freedom at Midnight: The Epic Drama of India’s Struggle for Independence, London, 1975, p. 444.
3 Ziegler, Philip, Mountbatten, London, 1985, p. 445.
4 Patel, Sardar, Sardar Patel’s Correspondence 1945–1950, ed. Darga Das, vols I–VIII, Ahmedabad, 1971–3, vol. I, p. 45, letter from Nehru to Sardar Patel, 27 September 1947.
5 Ibid., p. 57, letter to Baldev Singh, 7 October 1947.
6 BL, MSS Eur D 670/6, George Cunningham diary, 1947.
7 Hodson, H. V., The Great Divide: Britain–India–Pakistan, Karachi, 1969, p. 445.
8 Birdwood, Lord, Two Nations and Kashmir, London, 1956, p. 57; BL, MSS Eur F 164/25A, Mudie papers, ‘Kashmir before Accession’, letter by Maharaja of Kashmir to Lord Mountbatten, 26 October 1947.
9 Collins and Lapierre, Freedom at Midnight, p. 447.
10 BL, MSS Eur D 670/6, Cunningham diary, 1947, entry dated 25 October 1947.
11 Collins and Lapierre, Freedom at Midnight, p. 449.
12 BL, MSS Eur F 164/24, Mudie papers, ‘Intelligence reports concerning the tribal repercussions to the events in the Punjab, Kashmir and India’, report week ending 11 October 1947; Guha, Ramachandra, India after Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy, London, 2007, p. 66.
13 Patel, Correspondence, vol. I, p. 63, letter from Nehru to the Maharaja of Kashmir, 1 December 1947.
14 BL, MSS Eur D 670/6, Cunningham diary, 1947, entries dated 18 and 29 October 1947.
15 DNB.
16 BL, MSS Eur D 670/6, Cunningham diary, 1947, entry dated 28 October 1947.
17 Dasgupta, C., War and Diplomacy in Kashmir 1947–48, New Delhi, 2002, p. 9.
18 BL, MSS Eur D 670/6, entry dated 7 November 1947.
19 BL, MSS Eur D 714/84, ‘Correspondence and Minutes on Kashmir 1947–48’.
20 Ibid., ‘Note on the situation in India & Pakistan’, 1 December 1947.
21 BL, MSS Eur D 862, Powell’s papers.
22 BL, MSS Eur F 164/24, Mudie papers, ‘Intelligence reports concerning the tribal repercussions to the events in the Punjab, Kashmir and India’, reports week ending 8 and 22 November 1947.
23 Guha, India after Gandhi, pp. 72–3.
24 BL, MSS Eur D 714/86, ‘Governor-General’s Personal Report No. 8’, 3 February 1948.
25 Patel, Correspondence, vol. VI, p. 387, letter from Sardar Patel to Arthur Henderson, 3 July 1948.
26 Ibid., vol. I, p. 163, letter from Nehru to Sardar Patel, 8 February 1948.
27 Ibid., pp. 159–62, letter from the Maharaja of Kashmir to Sardar Patel, 31 January 1948.
28 Ibid., p. 181, letter from the Maharaja of Kashmir to Sardar Patel, 13 April 1948; ibid., p. 191, letter from Nehru to Sardar Patel, 30 May 1948.
29 Ibid., p. 225, letter from the Maharaja of Kashmir to Sardar Patel, 9 September 1948.
30 Schofield, Victoria, Kashmir in the Crossfire, London, 1996, p. 161.
31 Patel, Correspondence, vol. I, p. 201, letter from Nehru to Sardar Patel, 6 June 1948.
32 Abbas, Ahmad, Kashmir Fights for Freedom, Bombay, 1948, p. 12.
33 Patel, Correspondence, vol. I, p. 293, letter from V. Shankar to V. P. Menon, 16 August 1949.
34 Ibid., p. 268, letter from Sardar Patel to Nehru, 11 May 1949; ibid., p. 269, letter from the Maharaja of Kashmir to Sardar Patel, 6 May 1949; ibid., p. 272, letter from Nehru to Sardar Patel, 18 May 1949; ibid., p. 298, letter from the Maharani of Kashmir to Sardar Patel, 6 September 1949.
35 Wakhlu, Somnath, Hari Singh: The Maharaja, the Man, the Times, New Delhi, 2004, pp. 250, 253.
36 Brown, Judith M., Nehru: A Political Life, London, 2003, p. 214.
37 Collins and Lapierre, Freedom at Midnight, p. 448.
38 Smith, Donald, ‘Bloody Kashmir: Peril in Paradise’, National Geographic News, 22 March 2000.
39 Schofield, Kashmir in the Crossfire, p. 238.
40 Bose, Sumantra, Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace, London, 2003, p. 6.
41 Abbas, Kashmir Fights for Freedom, p. 6.
42 Bose, Kashmir, pp. 102–3.
43 Ibid., pp. 104–5.
44 Joshi, Manoj, The Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties, New Delhi, 1999, p. 2.
45 Ibid., pp. 442–3.
46 Time, ‘What did Kashmir have to do with the Mumbai Attacks?’, 7 December 2008.
47 J. Korbel, quoted in Guha, India after Gandhi, p. 79.
48 Patel, Correspondence, vol. I, p. 249, letter from Nehru to Sardar Patel, 27 October 1948.
49 Orwell, George, ‘Wells, Hitler and the World State’, in Orwell, George, Essays, London, new edn. 2000, p. 190.
50 Ibid., vol. I, p. 157, letter of Maharaja of Kashmir to Sardar Patel, 25 January 1948.
Chapter 8: White Elephant
1 Browne, Horace A., Reminiscences of the Court of Mandalay: Extracts from the Diary of General Horace A. Browne, 1859–1879, Woking, 1907, p. 179, entry dated 25 July 1879.
2 Ibid., p. 19, entry dated 1 September 1859.
3 Ibid., p. 14, entry dated 1 September 1859.
4 BL, MSS Eur E 290/20, Sladen papers, ‘The Present Political Situation in Burma’, report dated 17 September 1885.
5 Browne, Reminiscences, p. 37, entry dated 24 April 1872.
6 Ibid., p. 35, entry dated 24 April 1872.
7 Maung Htin Aung, The Stricken Peacock: Anglo-Burmese Relations 1752–1948, The Hague, 1965, p. 66.
8 Quoted in Woodman, Dorothy, The Making of Burma, London, 1962, p. 184.
9 Browne, Reminiscences, pp. 45–6, entry dated 31 July 1874.
10 Ibid., p. 46, entry dated 31 July 1874.
11 Maung Htin Aung, Lord Randolph Churchill and the Dancing Peacock: British Conquest of Burma, 1885, New Delhi, 1990, p. 34.
12 Anonymous, Burma, the Foremost Country: A Timely Discourse, London, 1884, p. 16; Ali, Mohammed Shamsher, ‘The Beginnings of British Rule in Upper Burma: A Study of British Policy and Burmese Reaction 1885–1890’, unpublished
PhD thesis, University of London, 1976, pp. 32–3.
13 Maung Htin Aung, Lord Randolph Churchill, p. 19.
14 BL, MSS Eur E 290/20, Sladen papers, ‘The Present Political Situation in Burma’, report dated 17 September 1885, p. 1.
15 Browne, Reminiscences, p. 145, entry dated 26 September 1878.
16 Thant Myint-U, The Making of Modern Burma, Cambridge, 2001, p. 156.
17 Quoted in Stewart, A. J. Q., The Pagoda War, London, 1972, p. 64.
18 Marks, John Ebenezer, Forty Years in Burma, London, 1917, pp. 223–4.
19 Colbeck, James, Mandalay in 1878–1879: The Letters of James Alfred Colbeck, Originally Selected and Edited by George H. Colbeck in 1892, ed. Michael W. Charney, Knaresborough, 1892, p. 62, letter dated 18 September 1878; ibid., pp. 62, 65, letter dated 28 September. The recipients of Colbeck’s letters are unknown.
20 Thant Myint-U, The Making of Modern Burma, p. 157.
21 Ibid., p. 55.
22 Colbeck, Letters, p. 66, letter dated 12 October 1878.
23 Ibid., p. 65, letter dated 28 September 1878.
24 Browne, Reminiscences, p. 171, entry dated 8 July 1878.
25 Colbeck, Letters, p. 72, letter dated 16 November 1878.
26 Geary, Grattan, Burma, after the Conquest, Viewed in its Political, Social and Commercial Aspects from Mandalay, London, 1886, p. 99.
27 Ibid., p. 128; Stewart, The Pagoda War, p. 61; Thant Myint-U, The Making of Burma, p. 162.
28 Colbeck, Letters, p. 73, letter dated 24 February 1879.
29 Stewart, The Pagoda War, p. 61.
30 Browne, Reminiscences, p. 159, entry dated 27 June 1879.
31 BL, MSS Eur E 290/25, Sladen papers, ‘Memorandum of the Burmese Minister of the Interior’, written up by Sladen, dated 22 January 1886.
32 Thant Myint-U, The Making of Modern Burma, p. 59.
33 Geary, Burma, pp. 175–6.
34 Colbeck, Letters, p. 75, letter dated 11 May 1879.
35 DNB.
36 BL, MSS Eur D 912, Letter book of Sir Charles Edward Bernard, letter to Lord Ripon, 1 July 1880; letters to A. C. Lyall, 8 and 27 July 1880.
37 DNB; BL, MSS Eur D 912, letter to Lord Ripon, 17 September 1880.
38 BL, MSS Eur D 912, letter to Lord Ripon, 6 April 1881.
39 BL, MSS Eur E 290/20, Sladen papers, ‘The Present Political Situation in Burma’, p. 29.
40 BL, MSS Eur D 912, letter to Lord Ripon, 22 February 1882.
41 DNB.
42 Colquhoun, A. R., Burma and the Burmans or the Best Unopened Market in the World, London, 1885, p. vi.
43 Ibid., pp. 21, 31, 40.
44 Browne, Reminiscences, p. 161.
45 Anonymous, Burma, the Foremost Country, p. viii.
46 Browne, Edmond, The Coming of the Great Queen: A Narrative of the Acquisition of Burma, London, 1988, pp. 103–4.
47 DNB.
48 DNB.
49 BL, MSS Eur E 254/10, Thirkell White papers, ‘letter from Secretary to the Chief Commissioner of British Burma to Secretary of the Government of India Foreign Department’, 28 July 1885.
50 Ibid., letter from E. S. Symes to Indian Foreign Secretary, 16 October 1885.
51 Quoted in Woodman, The Making of Burma, p. 3.
52 BL, MSS Eur E 290/20, pp. 36, 33, 40–1.
53 Thant Myint-U, The River of Lost Footsteps, London, 2007, p. 12.
54 Ali, ‘The Beginnings of British Rule in Upper Burma’, p. 30.
55 BL, MSS Eur E 290/65, Sladen papers, diary January to December 1885, entries dated 29 October and 7 November 1885.
56 BL, MSS Eur E 290/26, Sladen papers, letter from E. B. Sladen to H. M. Durand, Secretary to the Government of India, Foreign Department, 21 December 1885.
57 BL, MSS Eur E 290/65, Sladen diary, entry dated 9 December 1885.
58 Ibid., entry dated 16 December 1885.
Chapter 9: The Road from Mandalay
1 BL, MSS Eur B 380/2, Mayo papers, letter to Colonel Fytche, 11 June 1869.
2 Churchill, Winston S., Lord Randolph Churchill, 2 vols, London, 1906, vol. I, p. 48.
3 Ibid., pp. 524–5.
4 McCord, Norman, British History 1815–1906, Oxford, 1991, p. 378.
5 Parliamentary Debates, vol. 302, p. 339, House of Commons debate, 25 January 1886.
6 Ibid., p. 322, House of Commons debate, 25 January 1886.
7 Ibid., pp. 850–3, House of Lords debate, 22 February 1886.
8 DNB.
9 Parliamentary Debates, vol. 302, pp. 948–52, House of Commons debate, 22 February 1886.
10 Ibid., p. 963, House of Commons debate, 22 February 1886.
11 Ibid., p. 974, House of Commons debate, 22 February 1886.
12 Thant Myint-U, The River of Lost Footsteps: A Personal History of Burma, London, 2007, pp. 22–3.
13 Blackburn, Terence R., Executions by the Half-Dozen: The Pacification of Burma, New Delhi, 2008, p. 13.
14 BL, MSS Eur E 290/26, Sladen papers, ‘Memorandum by his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General’, 25 February 1886.
15 Ibid.
16 Parliamentary Debates, vol. 302, p. 182, House of Lords debate, 22 January 1886; ibid., p. 189, House of Commons debate, 22 January 1886.
17 BL, MSS Eur E 290/26, Sladen papers, ‘Memorandum by his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General’, 25 February 1886.
18 Geary, Grattan, Burma, after the Conquest, Viewed in its Political, Social and Commercial Aspects from Mandalay, London, 1886, p. 219.
19 Kipling, Rudyard, ‘The Taking of Lungtungpen’, in Kipling, Rudyard, Plain Tales from the Hills, London, 1888, pp. 99–104.
20 Geary, Burma, p. 234.
21 Ibid., p. 236. The correct quotation is ‘when lenity and cruelty play for a kingdom, the gentler gamester is the soonest winner’.
22 BL, MSS Eur E 290/26, Sladen papers, ‘Minuted Conversation with Mr Bernard’, 20 December 1885; letter from Colonel Sladen to the Chief Commissioner, 27 December 1885.
23 Ibid., letter from the Chief Commissioner to Colonel Sladen, 27 December 1885; letter from Sladen to the Chief Commissioner, 28 December 1885.
24 Ibid., telegram from the Chief Commissioner to the Indian government, 10 January 1886.
25 Ibid., ‘Memorandum by his Excellency the Viceroy and Governor-General’, 25 February 1886.
26 BL, MSS Eur E 290/28, Sladen papers, papers relating to the visit of Lord and Lady Dufferin to Mandalay, February 1886, statement of Lord Dufferin to the Council, signed Mandalay, 18 February 1886.
27 BL, MSS Eur E 290/27, Sladen papers.
28 Stewart, A. J. Q., The Pagoda War, London, 1972, p. 157.
29 Crosthwaite, Sir Charles, The Pacification of Burma, London, 1912, pp. 13–14.
30 BL, MSS Eur E 254/1, Thirkell White papers, letter from Charles Crosthwaite to Herbert Thirkell White, 6 August 1909.
31 Crosthwaite, The Pacification of Burma, p. v.
32 Ibid., p. 2.
33 Browne, Edmond Charles, The Coming of the Great Queen, London, 1888, p. 235.
34 Minayeff, I. P., Travels in and Diaries of India and Burma, trans. Hirendwanath Sanyal, Calcutta, 1958, p. 145, entry dated 25 January 1886.
35 The Times, 13 July 1886; Thant Myint-U, The River of Lost Footsteps, p. 28.
36 Browne, The Coming of the Great Queen, pp. 245–6, 248–9.
37 BL, MSS Eur E 254/10, Thirkell White papers, Major General Sir George White in the Burma Gazette, 2 July 1887.
38 Ibid., A. H. Hildebrand, Political Officer, Shan States, diary entry dated 25 January 1887; J. G. Scott, Assistant Superintendent, diary entry dated 6 March 1887.
39 Stewart, The Pagoda War, p. 180.
40 BL, MSS Eur E 254/10, Thirkell White papers, ‘Translation of papers found on the body of Bo Swe, the notorious dacoit leader in the Minbu district who was killed in October, 1887’.
41 Ibid., ‘Appendix 1 to note by Chief Commissioner from H. T. White’, dated 29 September 1889.
42 Crosthwaite, The Pacifi
cation of Burma, pp. v–vi.
43 Charles Crosthwaite, letter to Captain Raikes, 4 April 1888, quoted in Ali, Mohammed Shamsher, ‘The Beginnings of British Rule in Upper Burma: A Study of British Policy and Burmese Reaction, 1885–1890’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of London, 1976, pp. 284, 288.
44 BL, MSS Eur E 254/1, Thirkell White papers, letter from Charles Crosthwaite to Herbert Thirkell White, 2 January 1902.
45 BL, MSS Eur E 254/10, ‘Note by H. T. White, Secretary for Upper Burma, on the settlement of Pegu Province in 1852–55’, [n.d.] July 1886.
46 Geary, Burma, p. 245.
47 Ali, ‘The Beginnings of British Rule’, p. 314.
48 Ibid., p. 319.
49 Ni Ni Myint, Burma’s Struggle against British Imperialism 1885–1895, Rangoon, 1983, p. 158.
50 Ali, ‘The Beginnings of British Rule’, p. 330.
51 Stewart, The Pagoda War, p. 180.
52 Ibid., p. 164.
Chapter 10: ‘Twilight over Burma’
1 BL, MSS Eur E 362/3, Sir Arthur Bruce, Memoirs, p. 4.
2 Crick, Bernard, George Orwell: A Life, London, 1980, p. 156.
3 Thant Myint-U, The River of Lost Footsteps: A Personal History of Burma, London, 2007, p. 187.
4 Thirkell White, Herbert, A Civil Servant in Burma, London, 1913, pp. 24–5.
5 Copland, Ian, India 1885–1947, London, 2001, p. 19.
6 Thirkell White, A Civil Servant, pp. 55, 58, 66.
7 Kipling, Rudyard, Complete Verse, ed. M. M. Kaye, London, 1990, p. 260.
8 Browne, Edmond, The Coming of the Great Queen, London, 1888, p. 247.
9 BL, MSS Eur E 362/3, Sir Arthur Bruce, Memoirs, p. 4.
10 Geary, Grattan, Burma, after the Conquest, Viewed in its Political, Social and Commercial Aspects from Mandalay, London, 1886, p. 11; Thirkell White, A Civil Servant, pp. 69–70.
11 BL, MSS Eur D 912, Bernard papers, memorandum from Government House, Rangoon, [n.d.] January 1881.
12 BL, MSS Eur E 254/1, Thirkell White papers, letter from Crosthwaite to Thirkell White, 5 October 1888.
13 Crick, Orwell, p. 164; BL, MSS Eur E 362/8, Lord Ogmore, Memoirs, ch. 6, p. 8. The latter source gives details of U Tin Tut’s favoured position on the rugby field.
14 Collis, Maurice, Trials in Burma, London, 1945, new edn 1978, pp. 205–8; Solomon, Robert A., ‘Saya San and the Burmese Rebellion’, Modern Asian Studies, vol. 3, no. 3, 1969, pp. 209–23, at p. 210.
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