Glimpses of World History

by Jawaharlal Nehru

  41

  China Flourishes under the Tangs

  May 7, 1932

  I have told you of the Han dynasty in China; and of the coming of Buddhism; and of the invention of printing; and the introduction of the examination system for choosing public officers. In the third century after Christ the Han dynasty ends and the empire is divided up into three States. This period of division into “The Three Kingdoms”, as they are called, lasts for several hundred years, till China is reunited again and made into a powerful single State by a new dynasty, called the Tang Dynasty. This was early in the seventh century.

  The Tang Empire

  But even during this period of division Chinese culture and art continued in spite of Tartar attacks from the north. We are told of large libraries and of fine paintings. India continued to export not only her fine cloth and other goods, but her thought and religion and art. Many Buddhist missionaries went to China from India, and they carried with them the traditions of Indian art, and it is possible that Indian artists and master-craftsmen also went. The coming of Buddhism and of new ideas from India had a great effect on China. China of course was and had been a highly civilized country. It was not as if the religion or thought or art of India went to a backward country and took possession of it. In China this had to come up against China’s own ancient art and ways of thought. The result of the impact of these two was to produce something different from either—something with much of India in it but still essentially Chinese and moulded according to the Chinese pattern. Thus the coming of these thought-currents from India gave an impetus and a kick to the artistic and mental life of China.

  In the same way the message of Buddhism and of Indian art went farther east to Korea and Japan, and it is interesting to see how these countries were affected by it. Each country adapted it to suit its own particular genius. Thus although Buddhism flourishes in China and Japan, it bears a different aspect in each country; and both these perhaps differ in many ways from the Buddhism that went out from India. Art also varies and changes with the skies and with the people. In India we have now, as a people, forgotten art and beauty. Not only have we not produced anything of great beauty for long, but most of us have even forgotten how to appreciate the beautiful. How can beauty and art flourish in a country which is not free? They wither away in the darkness of subjection and restraint. But already, with the vision of freedom before us, our sense of beauty is slowly waking up. When freedom comes you will see a great revival of art and beauty in this country, and I hope this will sweep away the ugliness of our homes and our cities and our lives. China and Japan have been more fortunate than India and they have preserved still a great deal of their sense of beauty and artistry.

  As Buddhism spread in China more and more Indian Buddhists and monks went there, and Chinese monks travelled to India and to other countries. I have told you of Fa-Hien. You know also of Huien Tsang. Both of these came to India. There is a very interesting report of the journey of a Chinese monk named Hui Sheng across the eastern seas. He came to the capital of China in 499 AC and said that he had visited a land, which he called Fu Sang, several thousand miles east of China. East of China and Japan there is the Pacific Ocean, and it is possible that Hui Sheng had crossed this ocean. Perhaps he visited Mexico, for in Mexico there was even then an old civilization.

  Attracted by the spread of Buddhism in China, the head and patriarch of Indian Buddhism, whose name or title was Bodhidharma, sailed from South India for Canton in China. Perhaps the gradual weakening of Buddhism in India induced him to go. He was an old man when he went in 526 AC. With him and after him went many other monks to China. It is said that in one province of China alone—Lo-Yang—there were at this time more than 3000 Indian monks and 10,000 Indian families.

  Buddhism had another period of revival in India soon after, and as the birthplace of the Buddha and the place where the sacred writings were, India continued to attract pious Buddhists. But the glory seems to have departed from Buddhism in India, and China now becomes the leading Buddhist country.

  The Tang dynasty was started by the Emperor Kao Tsu in 618 AC. Not only did he unite the whole of China, but he spread his authority over an immense area—over Annam and Cambodia in the south and right up to Persia and the Caspian Sea in the west. Part of Korea was also included in this mighty empire. The capital of the Empire was Si-an-Fu, a city which was famous in eastern Asia for its splendour and culture. Embassies and commissions came to it from Japan and southern Korea, which was still free, to study its arts, philosophy, and civilization.

  The Tang Emperors encouraged foreign trade and foreign visitors. Special laws were made for the foreigners who settled or came to China, so that they might be judged according to their own customs wherever possible. We find especially the Arabs settling down in South China, near Canton, about 300 AC. This was before Islam came—that is, before the birth of the Prophet Mohammad. With the help of these Arabs an overseas trade developed and was carried in Arab as well as Chinese ships.

  You will be surprised to learn that the census—that is, the counting of people in a country so that its population may be known—is a very old institution in China. As long ago as 156 AC it is said that a census took place. This must have been during the time of the Hans. The counting used to be by families and not by individuals. Each family was roughly supposed to have five persons in it. According to this reckoning China had a population of about 50,000,000 in 156 AC. This is not a very accurate method, of course, but just remember that this census is quite a new thing in the West. I believe the first census was held in the United States of America about 150 years ago.

  In the early days of the Tangs, two other religions appeared in China— Christianity and Islam. Christianity was brought by a sect which had been declared heretic and driven away from the West. They were called Nestorians. I wrote to you some time ago of the disputes and fights between Christian sects. It was as a result of one of these disputes that the Nestorians were driven away by Rome. But they spread in China and Persia and in many other parts of Asia. They came to India also and had some success. But later other branches of Christianity and Islam swallowed up the Nestorians and there is little trace of them left. I was greatly surprised to find a small colony of them at a place in South India which we visited last year. Do you remember? Their bishop entertained us to tea. He was a delightful old man.

  It took some time for Christianity to reach China. But Islam came more swiftly. It came, indeed, a few years before the Nestorians and during the lifetime of its Prophet. The Chinese Emperor received both the embassies—Islamic and Nestorian—with courtesy and listened to what they had to say. He appreciated their views and showed favour impartially. The Arabs were permitted to build a mosque in Canton. This mosque still exists, although it is 1300 years old, and is one of the oldest mosques in the world.

  So also the Tang Emperor permitted the building of a Christian church and monastery. The contrast between this tolerant attitude and the intolerance of Europe in those days is very marked.

  It is said that the Arabs learnt the art of making paper from the Chinese and then taught it to Europe. In 751 AC there was a battle in Turkestan in Central Asia between the Chinese and the Muslim Arabs. The Arabs made several Chinese prisoners, and these prisoners taught them how to make paper.

  The Tangs lasted for 300 years, till 907 AC. These 300 years are said by some to be China’s greatest period, when there was not only a high level of culture, but a high level of general happiness for the people. Many things that the West got to know much later, the Chinese knew then. Paper I have already mentioned. Gunpowder was another. They were good engineers, and generally, in almost every particular, they were far in advance of Europe. If they were so far ahead, then why could they not keep ahead and lead Europe in science and discovery? But Europe gradually crept up to them, like a youth overtaking an elderly person, and was soon ahead, in some respects at any rate. Why this kind of thing happens in the history of nations is a mo
st difficult question for philosophers to ponder over. As you are not yet a philosopher who will worry about this question, I need not worry either.

  The greatness of China during this period had naturally great influence over the rest of Asia, which looked up to China for guidance in art and civilization. India’s star was not shining very brightly after the Gupta Empire ended. As usual, however, progress and civilization in China led to too much luxury and easy living. Then there was corruption in the State, and this made heavy taxation necessary. And so the people got fed up with the Tangs and put an end to their dynasty.

  42

  Chosen and Dai Nippon

  May 8, 1932

  As we proceed with our story of the world, more and more countries will come into our ken. So we must now have a look at Korea and Japan, close neighbours of China and, in many ways, children of Chinese civilization. They are at the extreme end of Asia—the Far East—and beyond is the great Pacific Ocean. Till recent years there was, of course, no contact with the American continent. So their sole contacts were with the great nation on the mainland—China. From China and through China they got their religion and art and civilization. The debt of both Korea and Japan to China is tremendous; and something they owe also to India. But whatever of India they got was through China and coloured by the Chinese spirit.

  Situated as they are, both Korea and Japan had little to do with big events in Asia or elsewhere. They were far from the centre of things, and to some extent they were fortunate, especially Japan. We might therefore almost ignore their history, till recent times, without any great difficulty. This would not make much difference to our understanding events in the rest of Asia. But we need not ignore it, just as we are not ignoring the past story of Malaysia and the eastern islands. Korea, poor little country, is almost forgotten today. Japan has swallowed her up and made her part of her empire. But Korea dreams still of freedom and struggles for independence. Japan is very much in evidence now and the newspapers are full of her attacks on China. As I write there is something like a war going on in Manchuria. So it would be well if we were to know something of the past of Korea and Japan, as this would help us to understand the present.

  The first thing to remember is their isolation for long periods. Japan, indeed, has a remarkable record of isolation and freedom from invasion. In the whole course of her history there have been few attempts at invading her and no success has attended them. All her troubles, till recently, have been her own internal troubles. For a period, Japan even cut herself off from the rest of the world completely. It was hardly possible for a Japanese to go out of the country or for foreigners, even the Chinese, to enter it. This was done to protect themselves from foreigners from Europe and Christian missionaries. It was a dangerous and foolish thing to do, for it meant putting the whole nation in prison and cutting it off from all outside influences, good or bad. And then suddenly Japan threw open her doors and her windows and rushed out to learn everything that Europe had to teach. And she learnt this with such right good will that within a generation or two she had become outwardly like any European country, and had even copied all their bad habits! All this took place within the last seventy years or so.

  Korean history begins long after Chinese, and Japanese history begins long after Korean. I told you in one of my letters last year how a Chinese exile named Ki-Tse, not approving of a change of dynasty in China, marched eastwards with 5000 followers. He settled down in Korea, calling it “Chosen”—the Land of the Morning Calm. This was in 1122 BC. Ki-Tse brought with him Chinese arts and crafts, agriculture and silk-making. For over 900 years Ki-Tse’s descendants ruled Chosen. Chinese immigrants used to come from time to time and settle down in Chosen, and thus there was fairly close contact with China.

  A big batch of Chinese came when Shih Huang Ti was emperor in China. You will perhaps remember this Chinese emperor who was a contemporary of Ashoka. He is the man who called himself “First Emperor” and had all the old books burnt. Driven away by Shih Huang Ti’s ruthless methods, many Chinese took refuge in Korea, driving away the feeble descendants of Ki-Tse. After this, Chosen was divided up into several States for over 800 years. These States often quarrelled with each other. Once one of these States asked China for help—a dangerous request to make. The help came, but it refused to go back! That is the way of powerful countries. China stayed on and added part of Chosen to her empire. Even the rest of Chosen, for some hundreds of years, acknowledged the suzerainty of the Tang Emperors in China.

  It was in 935 AC that Chosen became a united independent kingdom. Wang Kien was the man who succeeded in establishing this and for 450 years his successors managed to rule this kingdom.

  In two or three paragraphs I have given you more than 2000 years of Korean history! What is worth remembering is Korea’s great debt to China. The art of writing came to Korea from China. For 1000 years they used the Chinese characters, which, you will remember, represent ideas and words and phrases and not letters. Then they evolved out of this a special alphabet more suitable to their own language.

  Buddhism came via China, and the Confucian philosophy also came from China. Artistic influences from India travelled through China to Korea and Japan. Korea produced beautiful works of art, especially of sculpture. Their architecture resembled the Chinese. Great progress was also made in shipbuilding. Indeed, at one time the people of Korea had a powerful navy, with which they invaded Japan.

  Probably the ancestors of the present Japanese came from Korea or Chosen. Some of them may have come from the south, from Malaysia. As you know, the Japanese are a Mongolian race. There are still some people in Japan, called the Ainus, who are supposed to be the original inhabitants of the country. These people are fair and rather hairy, quite different from the average Japanese. The Ainus have been driven to the northern part of the islands.

  We find that a certain Empress Jingo was head of Yamato State about 200 AC. Yamato was the original name of Japan, or that part of it where these immigrants had settled. Note the name of this lady—Jingo. It is a curious coincidence that this should be the name of one of the earliest Japanese rulers. The word “Jingo” has come to have a definite meaning in English. It means a blustering and bumptious imperialist, or we might say just simply an imperialist, for every such person is bound to be, to some extent, blustering and bumptious. Japan is supposed to suffer also from this disease of imperialism or Jingoism, and in recent years she has misbehaved greatly towards Korea and China. So it is curious that Jingo should have been the name of her first historical ruler.

  Yamato kept up close relations with Korea and it was through Korea that Chinese civilization reached Yamato. The Chinese written language also came about 400 AC through Korea. So also came Buddhism. In 552 AC the ruler of Pakche (which was then one of the three kingdoms into which Korea was divided) sent to the ruler of Yamato a golden image of Buddha and Buddhist missionaries with their scriptures.

  The old religion of Japan was Shinto. This is a Chinese word meaning “the way of the Gods”. It was a mixture of Nature-worship and ancestor-worship. It did not trouble itself much with the future life or with mysteries and problems. It was the religion of a race of warriors. The Japanese, so near to the Chinese and so much in their debt for their civilization, are yet utterly different from the Chinese. The Chinese have been and are an essentially peaceful people. The whole of their civilization and philosophy of life is peaceful. The Japanese, on the other hand, have been and still are a fighting people. The chief virtue of a soldier is loyalty to his leader and to his comrade. This has been a virtue of the Japanese, and much of their strength is due to this. Shinto taught this virtue— “Honour the Gods and be loyal to their descendants”—and so Shinto has survived to this day in Japan and exists alongside with Buddhism.

  But is this a virtue? To be loyal to a comrade or to a cause is certainly a virtue. But Shinto and other religions have often tried to exploit our loyalties so as to benefit a group of people who rule over us. The worship
of authority, that is what they have taught in Japan and in Rome and elsewhere, and you will see later how much harm this has done us.

  There was some conflict between the new Buddhism, when it came, and the old Shinto. But soon they settled down side by side, and so they have continued till now. Shinto is still the more popular of the two, and it is encouraged by the ruling classes because it teaches obedience and loyalty to them. Buddhism is a slightly more dangerous religion, for the founder himself was a rebel.

  The artistic history of Japan begins with Buddhism. Japan or Yamato began then to develop direct contacts with China. There were constant embassies to China, especially during the Tang period, when the new capital Si-an-fu was famous all over eastern Asia. Indeed, the Japanese, or the people of Yamato, themselves established a new capital, called Nara, and tried to make this an exact copy of Si-an-fu. The Japanese always seem to have had an amazing capacity for copying and imitating others.

  Throughout Japanese history one finds great families opposing each other and struggling for power. Elsewhere, too, you will find this in the old days. In these families the old clan-idea persists. So Japanese history is the story chiefly of the rivalries of families. Their Emperor, the Mikado, is supposed to be all-powerful, an autocrat and semi-divine, descended from the Sun. Shinto and ancestor-worship have helped to make the people accept the autocracy of the Emperor and made them obedient to the powerful men of the land. But the Emperor himself has very often in Japan been a puppet without any real power. The power and authority were with some great family or clan who were the kingmakers and made kings and emperors of their choice.

  The first great Japanese family that appears in history controlling the State was the Soga family. It was their adoption of Buddhism that made of this a Court and official religion. One of their leaders, Shotuku Taishi, is one of the greatest men in Japanese history. He was a sincere Buddhist and an artist of great ability. He got his ideas from the Chinese Confucian classics, and tried to build up the government on a moral foundation and not just force. Japan was then full of clans whose chiefs were almost independent, and who fought each other and obeyed no authority. The Emperor, in spite of his high-sounding title, was just a big clan chief. Shotuku Taishi set about changing this and making the Central Government strong. He made the various clan chiefs and nobles “vassals” or subordinates to the Emperor. This was about 600 AC.