24.See State Department records described in previous source note and Bradley F. Smith and Elena Agarossi, Operation Sunrise. New York: Basic Books, 1979, pp. 189–90.
25.FBI file No. 100-380802, Ivan Kerno, obtained via Freedom of Information Act; Department of State records on Kerno: Maney to Bender, Department of State July 20, 1954, in Department of State FOI Case No. 8901702. The Kerno affair was first brought to light by historian and author Alti Rodale in an unpublished paper, “Canadian and Allied Governments’ Policies with Regard to Nazi War Crimes.” I am grateful to Dr. Rodale for sharing a draft of this paper with me.
Chapter Two
“The Immediate Demands of Justice”
1.H. W. V. Temperley (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, vol. 1. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 137–38. Temperley and many others underestimate the number of U.S. dead; for a discussion, see Gary Putka, “Readers of Latest U.S. History Textbooks Discover a Storehouse of Misinformation,” Wall Street Journal, February 12, 1992, p. B-1.
2.Some scholarly estimates place the number of Armenian dead at 1.5 to 2 million. For discussion concerning the number of fatalities, see Leo Kuper, “The Turkish Genocide of Armenians, 1915–1917,” in Richard Hovannisian (ed.), The Armenian Genocide in Perspective. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986, pp. 43–59. The interior minister of the postwar Turkish government, citing Turkey’s own records, admitted some 800,000 Armenian deaths in connection with the deportations as of 1919, though this total excluded several categories of fatalities; see Vahakn N. Dadrian, “The Naim-Andonian Documents on the World War I Destruction of Ottoman Armenians: The Anatomy of a Genocide,” International Journal of Middle East Studies, August 1986, pp. 342 and 358–59, fn111.
3.Temperley, op. cit., p. 162.
4.William McNeill, Plagues and Peoples. Garden City, NY: Doubleday/Anchor, 1977, pp. 195, 252, 255.
5.Temperley, op. cit., p. 139. Estimate has been converted from pounds sterling to dollars at contemporary exchange rate. Later estimates were higher and probably more accurate; see Eugene Meyer testimony at U.S. Congress, War Policies Commission, Hearings, March 5–18, 1931. Washington, DC: USGPO, p. 222.
6.David Albert Foltz, The War Crimes Issue at the Paris Peace Conference. Washington, DC: American University, Ph.D. thesis, 1978, pp. 10–37; Arthur Ponsonby, Falsehood in Wartime. New York: Dutton, 1928; Harold Lasswell, Propaganda Technique in the [First] World War. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971. On “symbiotic relationship”: George Bruntz, Allied Propaganda and the Collapse of the German Empire. New York: Arno, 1972, pp. 86–91, 194–201. On Lippmann’s role as an intelligence specialist and propagandist, see Ronald Steel, Walter Lippmann and the American Century. New York: Vintage, 1981, pp. 128–70 passim.
7.James Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg: The Politics and Diplomacy of Punishing War Criminals of the First World War. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982, pp. 37–64; Foltz, loc. cit.
8.Perhaps the most complete explanation of how the Hague conventions were viewed in 1919 can be found in a series of handbooks prepared for the U.S. delegation at Paris concerning issues involved in establishing culpability for war crimes, reparation policy, and related matters. These have been republished as: U.S., American Commission to Negotiate Peace (The Inquiry), The Inquiry Handbooks. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1974. See particularly vol. 2 (Laws of Land Warfare), vol. 3 (Selected Topics in the Laws of Warfare), vol. 7 (Neutrals’ Person and Property Within Belligerent Territory), vol. 8 (Maritime Warfare, Land Warfare), and vol. 9 (Blockade). For note concerning British sponsorship of the formulation of the maritime provisions, see Alfred de Zayas, The Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau, 1939–1945. Lincoln, NE: Univ. of Nebraska Press, 1989, p. 123.
9.The Hague, International Peace Conference, The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, vol. 2. New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1920, pp. 329, 698–700. Of particular interest in this context are the brutal suppression of the Boxer Rebellion in China and of a Philippine nationalist insurrection during the course of the second Hague conference itself, see Calvin DeArmond Davis, The United States and the Second Hague Peace Conference. Durham, NC: Duke Univ. Press, 1975, p. 37; and Leon Friedman, The Law of War. A Documentary History, vol. 1. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972, pp. 799–841.
10.For contemporary disputes concerning Belgian “peoples war” (civilian resistance), see Jules Valery, Les Crimes de la Population Beige; Réplique à un Plaidover pour le Gouvernement Allemand. Paris: Fontemoing/Libraires des Écoles Françaises, 1916; Belgium, Reports on the Violations of the Rights of Nations and of the Laws and Customs of War in Belgium (2 vols.). London: HMSO, n.d. (1916?); Fernand Passelecq, Deportation et Travail Force des Ouvriers et de la Population Civile de la Belgigue Occupée 1916–1918. Paris: Les Presses Universitaires, n.d. (1927?). For general problem of “legalized” slaughter of rebels, insurgents, guerrillas, and other irregulars, see Keith Suter, An International Law of Guerrilla Warfare. New York: St. Martin’s, 1984, pp. 1–19, 175–85; and Frits Kalshoven, Belligerent Reprisals, Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1971, pp. 1–44.
For more recent reflections on the persistence of this structural problem in international law, see Noam Chomsky, “The Role of Force in International Affairs,” in For Reasons of State. New York: Pantheon, 1973, pp. 212ff; Jean-Paul Sartre, “On Genocide,” in John Duffett (ed.), Against the Crime of Silence. New York: O’Hare, 1969, pp. 612ff; Donald Wells, War Crimes and Laws of War. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984; and Joseph Weiler, Antonio Cassese, and Marina Spinedi, International Crimes of State. A Critical Analysis of the ILC’s Draft Article 19 on State Responsibility. Berlin & New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1989. Philip Thienel, Special Operations Research Office, The Legal Status of Participants in Unconventional Warfare, Washington, DC: American Univ. Press, 1961.
11.The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conferences, vol. 2, op. cit., p. 5. For a profile of the delegations, see Davis, op. cit., pp. 178–85.
12.Bernard Baruch, The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the [Versailles] Treaty. New York: Harper, 1920; see particularly speeches by John Foster Dulles and Australian Prime Minister W. M. Hughes at pp. 289–315.
13.Ronald Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power. New York: Free Press, 1982, pp. 1–13; see also Leonard Mosely, Dulles. New York: Dial, 1978, pp. 13–27.
14.Pruessen, ibid., pp. 16–17.
15.Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan and Cromwell. New York: William Morrow, 1988, pp. 39–57.
16.Ibid., pp. 61–64; Pruessen, op. cit., pp. 17–20.
17.Pruessen, op. cit., pp. 23–44.
18.Richard Harris Smith, The OSS. Berkeley, CA: Univ. of California Press, 1972, p. 204.
19.Charles Seymour (Harold Whiteman, ed.), Letters from the Paris Peace Conference. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press, 1965, pp. 61–62, 174n, 176–77; see also Mosely, op. cit., pp. 44–45, 48. On Kerno: FBI file no. 100-380802, Ivan Kerno, obtained via the Freedom of Information Act; and Department of State FOI case no. 8901702.
20.Baruch, op. cit., p. 18, with transcripts of Dulles’s speeches at pp. 289–97, 323–37. See also: Arthur Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. New York: Norton, 1986, p. 21fn; Pruessen, op. cit., pp. 30–31.
21.Seymour op. cit., pp. 65, 86, 92. See also: U.S., American Commission to Negotiate Peace, Minutes July 1–September 4, 1919, from collection of Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, now at George Washington University Gellman Library, Washington, DC.
22.Allen Dulles, “The Present Situation in Hungary: Action Recommended by A. W. Dulles,” March 24, 1919, Woodrow Wilson papers, VIII A:27, cited in Arno Mayer, Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking, Containment and Counterrevolution at Versailles, 1918–1919. New York; Knopf, 1967, pp. 576–78.
23.Walworth, op. cit., p. 214.
24.Edward M. House, Diary, entry for July 24, 1915. Yale University Library, New Haven; Willi
s, op. cit., p. 41.
25.Willis, loc. cit.
26.Robert Lansing, Diary, entry for May 25, 1915, Library of Congress, Washington, DC, cited in Pruessen, op. cit., p. 46.
27.Willis, loc. cit.
28.United Nations War Crimes Commission, History of the United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Laws of War. London: HMSO, 1948, pp. 32–36, with quote concerning charges at pp. 33–34. This text is cited hereafter as UNWCC and the Laws of War.
29.Ibid., pp. 35–38.
30.Foltz, op. cit., pp. 165–71; Walworth, op. cit., pp. 214–15.
31.Foltz ibid., pp. 219–23; Willis, op. cit., p. 86.
32.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 36–41.
33.Walworth, op. cit., p. 215.
34.Willis, op. cit., p. 79.
35.Walworth, op. cit., p. 216.
Chapter Three
Young Turks
1.Vahakn Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem of National and International Law,” Yale Journal of International Law, Summer 1989, pp. 230–45.
2.For an overview, see Artem Ohandjanian, Armenien. Der Verschwiegene Völkermord. Vienna: Bohlar, 1969, pp. 84–124; Dadrian, “The Naim-Andonian Documents” and “Genocide as a Problem …” op. cit.; and Richard Hovannisian (ed.), The Armenian Genocide in Perspective. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1986. For an extensive documentary collection, see Adalian, The Armenian Genocide in U.S. Archives, 1915–18 (microficle collection). Alexandria, VA: Chadwyck-Healey, 1991–92. For a smaller collection of key U.S. government documentation concerning the genocide, see Armen Hairapetian, “‘Race Problems’ and the Armenian Genocide: The State Department File,” and Armen Hovannisian, “The United States Inquiry and the Armenian Question, 1917–1919 Archival Papers,” both with accompanying selections of archival records, Armenian Review, Spring 1984, pp. 41–202. For a British collection of detailed contemporary reports, see Arnold Toynbee (ed.), The Treatment of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire 1915–1916. London: HMSO, 1916. For a German collection, see Johannes Lepsius, Deutschland und Armenien 1914–1918, Sammlung Diplomatischer Aktenstücke. Potsdam: Tempelverlag, 1919. For a discussion of Turkish records, see Vahakn Dadrian, Documentation of the Armenian Genocide in Turkish Sources. Jerusalem, Israel: Institute on the Holocaust and Genocide, 1991.
3.On seizure of Armenian property, see Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem …,” op. cit, pp. 267–72.
4.Christopher Simpson, “Women and the Armenian Genocide,” paper presented at the Seventh Berkshire Conference on the History of Women, Wellesley College, June 19, 1987. In some cases, Turks protected Armenian girls by announcing their religious conversion and taking them into their families; see Donald Miller and Lorna Miller “An Oral History Prespective on Responses to the Armenian Genocide,” in Hovannisian, op. cit., p. 190.
5.See, for example, Deutsche Gesandtschaft Nr. 906 (Bern, October 19, 1915), in which the German ambassador reports to Berlin concerning confidential discussions with Turkish representatives. Turkish ambassador Salioh Bey Gourdji indicates that “If Turkey wishes to be a vital force, it must cut out, eliminate (auschalten) the Armenians in some way … the government has chosen the path marked by violence … even if we cannot find another way of moving the Armenians, the way that this is portrayed to the outside world must be different”; National Archives microfilm publication T-139, captured German records, reel 463, band 39.
6.For a useful summary of Morgenthau’s role, see Henry Morgenthau, Sr., “Ambasssador Morgenthau’s Story,” The World’s Work, November 1918.
7.Virtually all Western news coverage of the massacres included the theme of Muslims persecuting Christians. For examples, see Rev. Robert Labaree, “The Jihad Rampant in Persia,” Missionary Review of the World, July 1915; “Several American Missionaries Dead,” New York Times, September 18, 1915; “Spare Armenians, Pope Asks Sultan,” New York Times, October 11, 1915; “The Greatest of the Religious Massacres,” The Independent, October 18, 1915; “Assassination of Armenia,” Missionary Review of the World, November 1915. For a content analysis of contemporary reporting, see Marjorie Housepian Dobkin, “What Genocide? What Holocaust? News from Turkey 1915–1923, A Case Study,” in Hovannisian, op. cit., pp. 97–110. For a large collection of typical newspaper and magazine articles concerning the genocide, see Richard Kloian, The Armenian Genocide: News Accounts from the American Press 1915–1922. Richmond, CA: ACC Books, 1985.
8.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., p. 35.
9.David Fromkin, A Peace to End All Peace. New York: Avon, 1989, pp. 214–15; Firuz Kazemzadeh, The Struggle for Transcaucasia, 1917–1921. New York: Philosophical Library, 1950, pp. 27–30.
10.Dadrian, “The Naim-Andonian Documents” and “Genocide as a Problem …,” op. cit. A number of the Takyimi Vekayi documents are reproduced in English translation in Kloian, The Armenian Genocide, op. cit., pp. 309–32.
11.Dadrian, ibid., pp. 311ff.
12.Dobkin, op. cit., pp. 97–110; H. M. V. Temperley, (ed.), A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, vol. 6. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1969, pp. 178–92.
13.Temperley, ibid.; “Chronology of Events Relating to Development of Oil in Iraq, Compiled by the Library of Congress,” in U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Subcommittee on Multinational Corporations, Multinational Corporations and United States Foreign Policy, pt. 8. Washington, DC: USGPO, 1975, pp. 497–99.
14.Anthony Sampson, The Seven Sisters. New York: Bantam, 1975, p. 72.
15.On Treaty of Sèvres: UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., p. 45; Temperley, op. cit., vol. 6, p. 184; Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem …,” op. cit., pp. 288–91, 314; Hovannisian, op. cit., p. 36; Sampson, op. cit., p. 70–82; Leonard Mosley, Powerplay: Oil in the Mideast. New York: Random House, 1973, pp. 41–50.
16.Dobkin, op. cit., p. 105.
17.Loc. cit.
18.Ibid., p. 106; Allen Dulles to Mark Bristol, April 21, 1922, Bristol Papers, RG 45, National Archives, Washington, DC.
19.Henry Morgenthau, Sr., op. cit.; or Adalian, op. cit.
20.Dobkin, op. cit., pp. 97ff.
21.For a large collection of news accounts of this activity, see Kloian, Armenian Genocide, op. cit.
22.Dobkin, op. cit., p. 104.
23.Colby Chester, “Turkey Reinterpreted,” Current History, September 1922, pp. 939–47.
24.Dobkin, op. cit., p. 105.
25.For selected U.S. documentation concerning U.S. representatives at Lausanne, including the roles of Joseph Grew, Allen Dulles, Green Hackworth, and others, see: U.S. Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1923, vol. 2, Washington, DC: USGPO, 1938, pp. 879–1258. See particularly pp. 879, 972, 974–80 (Dulles); pp. 889, 900ff (Grew); 901, 926–27, 949, 954, 958, 991, and passim (oil).
26.On war crimes aspects of Treaty of Lausanne: Willis, op. cit., pp. 162–63; Dadrian, “Genocide as a Problem …,” op. cit., p. 310. On oil aspects of same treaty: Temperley, op. cit., vol. 6, pp. 178–92; “Chronology of Events Relating to Development of Oil in Iraq,” op. cit., pp. 497–99. For a collection of articles opposing the treaty, see American Committee Opposed to the Lausanne Treaty, The Lausanne Treaty, Turkey and Armenia, np: American Committee, 1928; and Eugene Borell, Sentence Arbitrate, Repartition des Annuites de la Dette Publique Ottomane, Article 47 de Traite de Lausanne, Geneva: Albert Kundig, 1925.
27.Dadrian, ibid., p. 310; Jacques Derogy, Resistance and Revenge: The Armenian Assassination of Turkish Leaders Responsible for the 1915 Massacres and Deportations. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1990.
28.For example, Embassy of Turkey, Setting the Record Straight on Armenian Propaganda against Turkey. Washington, DC: 1982.
29.James Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg: The Politics and Diplomacy of Punishing War Criminals of the First World War. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982. pp. 82–85.
30.Ibid., p, 83.
31.Ibid., p. 84; David Albert Foltz, The War Crimes Issue at the Paris Peace Conference. Washington, DC: American University,
Ph.D. thesis, 1978, pp. 219–23.
32.Willis, ibid., p. 85.
33.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 46–49.
34.Ibid., pp. 46–47.
35.Loc. cit.
36.Ibid., p. 48.
37.Ibid., p. 44; Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers. American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. New York: Norton, p. 216. For an extended discussion of this issue, see Foltz, op. cit.
38.Willis, p. 86.
Chapter Four
Bankers, Lawyers, and Linkage Groups
1.Ronald Preussen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power. New York: Free Press, 1982, p. 33.
2.Ibid., p. 42.
3.Ibid., p. 46.
4.Ibid., p. 48. On stabilization politics in Continental Europe during this period, see Charles Maier, Recasting Bourgeois Europe. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press, 1975, esp. pp. 579–94.
5.Bernard Baruch, The Making of the Reparation and Economic Sections of the [Versailles] Treaty. New York: Harper; 1920, pp. 294–95, with text of Dulles speeches at pp. 289–97, 323–37.
6.Karl Bergmann, The History of Reparations. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1927, pp. 69–77.
7.For a concise summary of the terms of Dawes Plan loans, see Moody’s Investors Service, Moody’s Manual of Investments: Foreign and American Government Securities. New York: Moody’s, 1925, p. 422; see also Preussen, op. cit., pp. 87–88.
8.U.S. Congress, Senate, Committee on Finance. Sale of Foreign Bonds and Securities in the United States. Washington, DC: USGPO, 1931.
The Splendid Blond Beast Page 37
