The Splendid Blond Beast
Page 42
2.The People’s Verdict, A Full Report of the Proceedings at the Krasnodar and Kharkov German Atrocity Trials. London, 1944, pp. 45–124; “Gallows for Germans Are Raised in Kharkov,” Daily Express (London), July 6, 1944.
3.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., pp. 107–108.
4.Harriman to Secretary of State (reporting Morgenthau comments), November 16, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1157, with attached notes by Dunn and Stettinius, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
5.“USA.-Luftgangster nennen sich selbst ‘Mordverein’,” Völkischer Beobachter, December 21, 1943. See also Office of U.S. Chief of Counsel for Prosecution of Axis Criminality, Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Washington, DC: USGPO, 1946, vol. 8, pp. 539–45. For Western intelligence analysis of German announcements concerning Allied war crimes, see Alexander L. George, Propaganda Analysis, White Plains, NY: Row Peterson & Co., and Rand Corporation, 1959, pp. 161–70. For captured World War I–era German documentation concerning war crimes issues, see U.S. Department of State, Documents on German Foreign Policy 1918–1945 from the Archives of the German Foreign Ministry, Washington, DC: USGPO, 1949, p. 1025, entries 47, 48, and 49.
6.Hull to American Legation Bern, December 24, 1943, attached to 740.00116 EW 1939/1159, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. The cover note clearly links the announcement to the Kharkov trial: Hull “refers to press and radio reports that German authorities intend to try as war criminals American aviators held as prisoners of war by Germany, allegedly upon a basis of a precedent established by the Soviet authorities. Request Swiss [government] to report fully by telegraph regarding this matter. You may assure Swiss that this [U.S.] Government is not (repeat not) proceeding against German prisoners of war along lines similar to above reports.…” The Swiss government was serving as an intermediary between the U.S. and German governments, and was expected to pass this message to Berlin.
7.Hull to American Embassy Moscow, December 31, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1249A, and Hull to American Embassy London, January 4, 1944, 740.00116 EW 1939/1249B, both in RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
8.Stettinius to Dunn and Matthews, January 28, 1944, and Dunn to Stettinius, February 1, 1944; attachments to Harriman to Secretary of State, November 16, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1157, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
9.Algiers to Secretary of State, November 23, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1169, and Secretary of State (via. Bernard Guffler) to Amrep. Algiers, November 26, 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1159, both in box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
10.Ibid. 740.00116 EW 1939/1249B. For materials on death of Stalin’s son, see “Abschrift an den Lagerkommandant,” April 14, 1943 (reporting on incident, with photos and accompanying German correspondence), now at 840.414/8-145, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC; Svetlana Alliluyeva (Priscilla Johnson McMillan, trans.), Twenty Letters to a Friend. New York: Harper, 1967, pp. 157–63.
11.Herbert Pell, Oral History (1951), Columbia University, pp. 538–39.
12.Loc. cit.
13.Ibid., pp. 569–70.
14.Gallman to Secretary of State, October 26 1943, 740.00116 EW 1939/1150, box 2921, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC, reports on a British Institute of Public Opinion poll released on October 25. In response to the question, “At the end of the war, what do you think should be done with the Axis leaders?” respondents answered:
Percent
Let them go, ignore them
1
They won’t be found
1
Leave them to their own peoples
1
They should be put on trial
18
Exile them, imprison them, put them in solitary confinement
11
Hand them over to the Jews, the Poles and others who have suffered
4
Shoot them
40
Nothing is horrible enough, torture them
15
Miscellaneous or no opinion
9
100
15.Pell to FDR, January 27, 1944, with a cover note from Roosevelt to Hull requesting that State draft a reply for FDR’s signature, 740.00116 EW 1939/1305, box 2922, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
16.Pell to Hull, January 28, 1944, 740.00116 EW 1939/1306, box 2922, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
17.FDR to Pell, February 12, 1944, attached to 740.00116 EW 1939/1305 (ibid.).
18.Pell, Oral History, op. cit., passim.
19.FDR to Pell, February 12, 1944, attached to 740.00116 EW 1939/1305 (ibid.).
20.See Hull to Pell, February 10, 1944 (Hull’s reply to Pell’s January 28 letter), attached to 740.00116 EW 1939/1306 (ibid.); Stettinius to Pell, February 15, 1944, 740.00116 EW 1939/1299; FDR to Pell March 1, 1944, attached to 740.00116 EW 1939/1340; and Hull to Pell, March 15, 1944, 740.00116 EW 1939/1315; all at box 2922, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
21.UNWCC and the Laws of War, op. cit., p. 141.
22.Stettinius to Pell, February 15, 1944, 740.00116 EW 1939/1299; and Hull to Pell, March 15, 1944, 740.00116 EW 1939/1315; both at box 2922, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
23.Pell, Oral History, op. cit., p. 584.
24.Pell, Omission and Commission, op. cit., (see Chap. 9), pp. 15–17, 27; Schwartz, op. cit., pp. 31–33; Tom Bower, Blind Eye to Murder. London: Granada, 1983, p. 81.
25.Bower, ibid., p. 78.
26.British Foreign Office, Hurst to Simon, April 1, 1944, FO 371 38993/C4637, Public Record Office, London; Bower, op. cit., p. 78.
27.Gerhard Hirschfeld, “Chronology of Destruction,” in Gerhard Hirschfeld (ed.), The Policies of Genocide: Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War in Nazi Germany. London: Allen & Unwin/German Historical Institute, 1986.
28.Bower, op. cit., pp. 84, 476.
29.Ibid., pp. 85–86.
30.Werth, Russia at War, op. cit., pp. 806–15.
31.Ibid., p. 814.
Chapter Twelve
Morgenthau’s Plan
1.John Morton Blum, From the Morgenthau Diaries. Years of War 1941–1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1917, pp. 329–33, 338–40. For Kennan’s version: George F. Kennan, Memoirs 1925–1950. Boston: Little, Brown, 1967, vol. 1, pp. 164–87.
2.Harley Notter (U.S. Department of State, Office of Public Affairs), Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, 1939–1945. Washington, DC: USGPO/Department of State, 1950, pp. 207–27 passim. Policy slogan: Blum, ibid., p. 332. Kennan presents his point of view concerning war crimes as a direct response to Morgenthau’s (and apparently Roosevelt’s) “pipedreams of collaboration with the Russians” in postwar reconstruction of Germany; see Kennan, op. cit., p. 178.
3.Blum, op. cit., pp. 338–40.
4.Ibid., p. 346.
5.Fred Kaplan, “Scientists at War. The Birth of the RAND Corporation,” American Heritage, June–July 1983, p. 53.
6.Blum, op. cit., pp. 333–43.
7.Ibid., pp. 340–41.
8.Schwartz, The United States and the War Crimes Commission, op. cit.
9.Bradley F. Smith, Reaching Judgement at Nuremberg. New York: New American Library, 1977, p. 22; Blum; op. cit., p. 334.
10.Smith, ibid., p. 23.
11.Franklin Roosevelt, “Memorandum for the Secretary of War,” August 26, 1944. Lot: Central European Division, box 4, file “German Handbook—SHAEF,” RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
12.Ibid.
13.Henry Morgenthau, Diaries, vol. 768, pp. 157–65, Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde Park, NY.
14.Ibid.
15.Blum, op. cit., p. 343.
16.David Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews. New York: Pantheon, 1984. p. 258; Schwartz, op. cit., p. 37.
17.Frederick Kuh, “War Crimes Group Lists But 350 Names: Hitler, Himmler, Other Nazi Bigwigs Omitted by Commission in London,” Washington Post, September 17, 1944. Hull quickly (and inaccurately) denied the report: “Hitler on List of Criminals, Hull Declares,” Wa
shington Post, September 19, 1944; but see Drew Pearson column “Washington Merry-Go-Round,” Atlanta Journal (and many other papers), October 8, 1944. See also “Nine Months Work on War Crimes: Case Against Hitler Not Yet Being Prepared,” Daily Telegraph (London), August 31, 1944.
18.Kuh, “War Crimes Group …,” ibid.
19.Pell, Oral History, op. cit., p. 590.
20.Smith, op. cit., p. 26.
21.Ibid., pp. 12–19 and passim.
22.On Glueck and Roosevelt precedents prior to Bernays: Glueck, War Criminals. Their Prosecution and Punishment. New York: Knopf, 1944. pp. 37, 39; Franklin Roosevelt, “Memorandum for the Secretary of War,” August 26, 1944. Lot: Central European Division, box 4, file “German Handbook—SHAEF,” RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. For discussion of significance of conspiracy charges to Nuremberg prosection: Smith, loc. cit., and “War Crimes Prosecutions: Planning Memorandum” (Secret), May 17, 1945, 740.00116EW/S-2445, box 3599, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
23.Blum, op. cit., pp. 378–79.
24.Schwartz, op. cit., pp. 45–50; Michael Blayney, “Herbert Pell, War Crimes and the Jews,” American Jewish Historical Quarterly, June 1976, pp. 347–49.
25.Schwartz, op. cit., p. 45.
26.Blayney, op. cit., p. 348.
27.P. H. Gore-Booth to Hackworth, with attachments, December 21, 1944, box 138, Committee on Europe, SWNCC/SANACC Committee files, RG 353, National Archives, Washington, DC. Combined Chiefs of Staff, “Obligations of Theater Commanders in Relation to War Crimes,” CCS 705/1, December 17, 1944, attached to Gore-Booth; and enclosure A, p. 8.
28.For Department of Justice opposition and reversal, see Smith, op. cit., pp. 33–34.
29.Gore-Booth to Hackworth, op. cit.
30.Ibid.; and attachment, Combined Chiefs of Staff, “Obligations of Theater Commanders …,” op. cit.
31.Pell, Oral History, op. cit., pp. 589–90.
32.Blayney, op. cit., p. 351; Victor Bernstein, “Who Are the U.S. Officials Seeking to Sabotage Trial of Nazi Killers?” PM, January 28, 1945.
33.Blayney, op. cit., pp. 351–52.
34.Loc. cit.
35.Saul Padover, Experiment in Germany. The Story of an American Intelligence Officer. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1946, pp. 222–25.
36.Loc. cit.
37.Loc. cit.
38.Cedric Belfrage, Seeds of Destruction. New York: Cameron & Kahn, 1954, p. 38. Belfrage, a dedicated man of the left who was also a U.S. military government officer in Aachen specializing in newspapers, propaganda, and public opinion, offers an anecdotal account of the same events discussed by Padover. He describes his account as “factbased” fiction, so obviously this text can be used by historians only with great caution. The public opinion statistics are accurate, however. For more on Belfrage’s important role in encouraging the German left during the early occupation years in Germany, see Emil Carlebach, Zensur ohne Schere. Die Grunderiahre der ‘Frankfurter Rundschau’ 1945–1947. Frankfurt: Roderberg-Verlag, 1985.
39.Padover, op. cit., pp. 249–52.
40.Loc. cit.
41.Loc. cit.
Chapter Thirteen
“This Needs to Be Dragged Out Into the Open”
1.Bern to OSS headquarters and division chiefs, December 26, 1944 (Secret); Bern November 1, 1944–January 31, 1945, Wash Sect R&C 78, folder 19, box 278, entry 134, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC.
2.Ibid.
3.See, for example, Robert Joyce (Central Intelligence Group) to Walter Dowling (State Dept.), “Subject: Former SS Colonel Dollmann,” December 1, 1946 (Top Secret), 740.00116EW/12-146; or Robert Murphy to Secretary of State, August 11, 1947 (Top Secret), 740.00116EW/8-1147; both obtained via Freedom of Information Act. For details concerning Dulles’s denials, see the source notes in chapter 14.
4.Robert O. Paxton, Vichy France, Old Guard and New Order, 1940–1944. New York: Knopf, 1972, p. 242.
5.John Morton Blum, From the Morgenthau Diaries. Years of War 1941–1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967. p. 394.
6.Ibid., pp. 416–18.
7.Ibid. Robert Murphy helped sponsor General Lucius Clay’s appointment as Dwight Eisenhower’s chief deputy for military government in March 1945. Clay soon rose to become the military governor in the U.S. occupation zone of Germany and the commander of U.S. forces in Germany; see Lucius Clay, Decision in Germany. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1950.
8.Washington Post, January 31, 1945.
9.JCS 1067 4.c., quoted in “Statements of policies and directives relating to foreign and domestic cartels,” file: “Cartels, Decartelization,” box 55, Legal Advice Branch, OMGUS Legal Division, RG 260, National Archives, Suitland, MD.
10.Loc. cit.
11.For example, German banking had fewer structural restrictions on its activities than those provided for in the U.S. under the Banking Act of 1933 (Glass-Steagall Act), although theoretically the occupation government could have remanded any particular banking action. See “Removals of Officials from German Banks and Companies: [Legal] Opinion,” n.d. (Spring 1945), in file: “Denazification,” box 229, OMGUS/FINAD, RG 260, National Archives, Suitland, MD. For an overview of U.S. postwar banking policy in Germany up to 1952, see U.S., Office of the High Commission for Germany [HICOG], Historical Division (Rodney Loehr), The West German Banking System (Restricted), n.p. (HICOG Historical Division, Bad Godesberg-Mehlem), 1952.
12.“Removal of Undesirable Personnel from the German Financial System—Denazification,” March 19, 1945 (Secret), and “Schedule of Financial Personnel” (Secret), n.d., in file: “Denazification,” box 229, OMGUS/FINAD, RG 260, National Archives, Suitland, MD.
13.Ibid.
Chapter Fourteen
Sunrise
1.See, for example, Robert Joyce (Central Intelligence Group) to Walter Dowling, “Subject: Former SS Colonel Dollmann” (Top Secret), December 1, 1946, obtained in sanitized form via the Freedom of Information Act, 740.00116EW/12-146, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC; copy in author’s collection; Murphy to Secretary of State, 740.00116EW/8-1147 (Top Secret, No Distribution), August 11, 1947, RG 59, National Archives, obtained via Freedom of Information Act in 1990.
2.Ildefonso Cardinal Schuster, Gli ultimi tempi di un regime. Milan, 1946, p. 35, as reported in Eugen Dollmann (J. Maxwell Brownjohn, trans.), The Interpreter; Memoirs of Doktor Eugen Dollmann. London: Hutchinson, 1967, pp. 340–41.
3.For a discussion of the “dual containment” thesis, see Thomas Alan Schwartz, America’s Germany; John J. McCloy and the Federal Republic of Germany. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1991.
4.Dollmann, op. cit., p. 340.
5.Ibid., p. 241.
6.Ibid., p. 342. For Parilli’s own account, see Ferruccio Lanfranchi, La Resa Degli Ottocentomila, con le Memorie Autografe del Barone Luigi Parrilli. Milano: Rizzoli, 1948.
7.Dollmann, op. cit., p. 342.
8.See Allen Dulles’s self-congratulatory account, The Secret Surrender. New York: Harper, 1966. For more reliable accounts, see Karl Stuhlpfarrer, Die Operationszonen “Alpenvorland” und “Adriatisches Kustenland” 1943–1945. Wien: Verlag Bruder Hollinek/Österreichischen Instituts für Zeitgeschichte, 1969 (based mainly on German records); Jochen Lang, Der Adjutant: Karl Wolff, Der Mann zwishen Hitler und Himmler, Berlin: Herbig, 1985, pp. 259–306; and particularly Bradley F. Smith and Elena Agarossi, Operation Sunrise; The Secret Surrender. New York: Basic Books, 1979, p. 190. Gabriel Kolko was among the first Western historians to recognize the pivotal importance to the Soviets of the Italian surrender negotiations; see Gabriel Kolko, The Politics of War, New York: Random House, 1978. pp. 375–79.
9.Nuremberg doc. no. 2207, cited in Smith and Agarossi, loc. cit; see also “Summary Prepared by W. M. Chase on ‘The Role of the Wolff Group in Operation Sunrise,’” March 10, 1947 (Top Secret), 740.00116EW/11-1047, box 3625, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
10.Smith and Agarossi, op. cit., p. 91.
11.Molotov letter to
Harriman, March 16, 1945, published in Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, Correspondence, op. cit., pp. 296–97, 78n.
12.“Personal and Top Secret for Marshal Stalin from President Roosevelt” (received March 25, 1945), ibid., pp. 198–99.
13.“Personal and Secret from Marshal J. V. Stalin to the President, Mr. F. Roosevelt,” March 27, 1945, and second Stalin note of March 29, 1945, ibid., pp. 199–201.
14.Two notes marked “Personal and Top Secret for Marshal Stalin from President Roosevelt” (both received April 1, 1945), ibid., pp. 201–205.
15.“Personal, Most Secret from J. V. Stalin to the President, Mr. Roosevelt,” April 3, 1945, ibid., pp. 205–206.
16.See, for example, German proposal outlined in OSS cable Suhling to Glavin and Ryan, March 6, 1945 (Top Secret), OSS Sunrise I-XXX, entry 110, folder e2, box 2, RG 226, National Archives, Washington, DC.
17.“Personal and Top Secret for Marshal Stalin from President Roosevelt,” received April 13, 1945, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, Correspondence, op. cit., p. 214.
18.Key observers convinced that Dulles offered de facto amnesty to the Wolff group: Murphy to Secretary of State, 740.00116EW/8-1147 (Top Secret, No Distribution), August 11, 1947, RG 59, National Archives, obtained via Freedom of Information Act. “Interrogation Report on SS Standartenfuehrer Rauff, Walter,” May 15, 1945 (Confidential), in U.S. Army Counter Intelligence Corps file no. D-216719, Rauff, Walter, obtained via Freedom of Information Act from U.S. Army INSCOM, Ft. Meade, MD. Soviet comments: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, Correspondence, op. cit., pp. 198–99, 296–97, sn78.
19.Smith and Agarossi, op. cit., p. 145.
20.Ibid., p. 214, 103n.
21.Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace. The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977. op. cit., p. 89.