11.John Martin Blum, From the Morgenthau Diaries. Years of War 1941–1945. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1967.
12.Author’s interviews with Senator Claiborne Pell.
13.See for example, John Gillingham, Industry and Politics in the Third Reich. London: Methuen, 1985 (re: Ruhr coal); Simon Reich, The Fruits of Fascism: Postwar Prosperity in Historical Perspective. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univ. Press, 1990. (re: auto industry); Peter Hayes, Industry and Ideology. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1987 (re: IG Farben).
14.United Nations War Crimes Commission Archives, New York, NY. Cases include, for example, Netherlands vs. Ludwig Nolte (formerly of the Netherlands-based Philips corporation), charged with murder and pillage; UNWCC vs. Ernst Poensgen (of Vereinigte Stahlwerke—United Steelworks); Luxembourg vs. Gunther Quandt (Akkumulatorenfabrik—batteries, Daimler Benz autos, and other companies), charged with complicity in arrests and deportations; France vs. Dr. Karl Ritter (German Foreign Ministry), charged with murder; Poland vs. Alfons Wagner (prominent mining industrialist), for confiscation of property; UNWCC vs. Wilhelm Zangen (Deutsche Bank, AEG, etc.), for crimes against peace and crimes against humanity; and many others.
15.Benjamin Ferencz, Less Than Slaves. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press, 1979. pp. 179–81; Ferencz interview.
16.Ferencz interview with author.
17.Reported in “The Suppressed Dulles Story,” In Fact (New York), no. 472, October 24, 1949.
18.John Foster Dulles to Secretary of State, with attachment, March 10, 1948 (Confidential), 861 20211/3-1048, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
19.Quoted in Ronald Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power. New York: Free Press, 1982, p. 124. Pruessen presents what is probably the most complete and cautious examination of the evidence still extant on John Foster Dulles’s business affairs in Germany; see particularly pp. 123–32. See also Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan and Cromwell. New York: William Morrow, 1988, pp. 119–59.
20.See Fite (legal advisor’s office) to Secretary of State, with attachments, August 6, 1947, f/w 740.00116EW/6-1847; Henderson to Fite, June 18, 1947, 740.00116EW/6-1847; and Solly-Flood to Barbour, June 21, 1947, 740.00116 EW/6-2147; all in box 3623, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
21.Robert Patterson (Secretary of War) to Secretary of State, July 22, 1947 (Top Secret), 740.00116 EW/7-2247, box 3624, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC. “Exceptions” discussed in Fite memo to U.S. Political Advisor, Berlin (Murphy), June 9, 1947: “[State] does not consider that US constitutional definition treason can be accepted as standard for judging surrender requests … more rigid standard should be required,” in file: “US POLAD,” lot 61 D 33, box 2, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
22.740.00116EW/12-547 (Netherlands), 740.00116EW/11-2147 (Poland), 740.00116EW/11-1447 (Czechoslovakia), 740.00116EW/1-848 (Poland), 740.00116EW/10-3147 (France), 740.00116EW/12-1947 (Netherlands), 740.00116EW/6-2449 (France), 740.00116EW/6-16-49 (Belgium); all at RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
23.U.S. diplomatic note to French ambassador, July 20, 1949, 740.00116 EW/6-2449, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
24.UNWCC case no. 7593, United Nations War Crimes Commission Archives, New York, NY; or copy at 740.00116EW/2-2748, box 3628, RG 59, National Archives, Washington, DC.
25.UNWCC case no. 7347, Poland vs. Dr. Paersch, Reichsbank Berlin, et al, op. cit.
26.Alti Rodale, “Canadian and Allied Government’s Policies with Regard to Nazi War Crimes,” (unpublished paper, courtesy of Dr. Rodale).
27.“Israel Urges Public Access to U.N. War Files,” New York Times, May 2, 1986; Ruth Marcus, “Nazi-Hunters Gain Access to U.N. Documents,” Washington Post, November 23, 1987.
28.Alti Rodale, op. cit.
29.FBI file No. 100–380802, Ivan Kerno, and Department of State records on Kerno obtained via Freedom of Information Act.
30.Ibid., and Maney to Bender, Department of State, July 20, 1954, in Department of State FOI case no. 8901702.
31.Ibid.
Chapter Twenty
Money, Law, and Genocide
1.Sergo Mikoyan comments, June 10, 1991, Smithsonian Institution, Wilson Center Colloquium. Mikoyan is the son of Anastas Mikoyan, who played a prominent role in the foreign affairs of the Stalin and Khrushchev governments in the USSR. The younger Mikoyan, also a foreign policy professional from the former USSR, is editor of Latinskaia Amerika. See also Michael McGwire, The Genesis of Soviet Threat Perceptions. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution monograph, 1987 (contractor’s report No. 800–5 to the National Council for Soviet and East European Research). For an example of contemporary Soviet writing about these issues, see Sovinformburo, Falsifiers of History (Historical Survey). Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1951.
New evidence underlining Mikoyan’s point arrived from recently opened Soviet archives as this book was in preparation. On September 27, 1946, Soviet ambassador to the United States Novikov sent a long dispatch to Stalin summarizing the factors that he saw as central to understanding U.S. intentions. The Novikov dispatch reads in part: “One of the most important elements in the general policy of the United States … is the policy with regard to Germany.… The American occupation policy does not have the objective of eliminating the remnants of German Fascism and rebuilding German political life on a democratic basis, so that Germany might cease to exist as an aggressive force. The United States is not taking measures to eliminate the monopolistic associations of German industrialists on which German Fascism depended … neither is any agrarian reform being conducted.… One cannot help seeing that such [policies have] a clearly outlined anti-Soviet edge.…” (translation by Ken Jensen and John Glad). The point here is Novikov’s interpretation, not whether or not he accurately portrayed U.S. intentions. Given the context of the time, Novikov’s perception almost certainly mirrored Stalin’s own. The Novikov telegram is widely regarded by historians today as “in some ways parallel,” as Vladimir Shustov put it, to George Kennan’s famous Mr. X telegram of roughly the same period in that it frankly summarizes the dominant interpretation of the actions of rivals. See Ken Jensen, U.S. Institute of Peace, “Memorandum,” August 15, 1990.
2.United Nations, Human Rights, A Compilation of International Instruments. New York: United Nations, n.d.
3.Important exceptions to the usual silence concerning bombing include: Seymour Melman, In the Name of America. Annandale, VA: Clergy and Laymen Concerned About Vietnam, 1968, pp. 173–268; and Duffett, Against the Crime of Silence, op. cit. For discussion of the issue of war crimes and crimes against humanity during the 1991 “Desert Storm” bombardment of Iraq, see Middle East Watch, Needless Deaths in the Gulf War. Civilian Casualties During the Air Campaign and Violations of the Laws of War. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1991; William Arkin, Damian Durrant, and Marianne Cherni, On Impact: Modern Warfare and the Environment. Washington, DC: Greenpeace, 1991; San Francisco Commission of Inquiry, High Crimes and Misdemeanors: U.S. War Crimes in the Persian Gulf. San Francisco, International War Crimes Tribunal, 1991.
For discussion of the use of atomic bombs as a prima facie war crime due to the indiscriminate destruction resulting from an atomic attack, see Leon Friedman, “The Shimoda Case,” in The Law of War. A Documentary History, vol. 2. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1972, pp. 1688–1702.
4.Thomas Buergenthal, International Human Rights. St. Paul, MN: West, 1988, pp. 213, 221–22, 230. For concise background on the Genocide Convention, see Vita Bite, Genocide Convention, Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service publication IB74129, 1987; and Barbara Harff, Genocide and Human Rights: International Legal and Political Issues, University of Denver School of International Studies, Monograph Series in World Affairs, vol. 20, book 3, 1984.
5.Neil Lewis, “Sorting Out Legal War Concerning Real War,” New York Times, November 15, 1990, p. A-18. The comment from Acheson was reported by Harvard professor Abram Chayes, the
legal advisor to President Kennedy during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, who sat in on Acheson’s session with Kennedy at the height of the crisis.
For a concise presentation of the various trends of thought in ongoing debates among specialists concerning international law and human rights, see Tom Farer, “Human Rights in Law’s Empire: The Jurisprudence War,” American Journal of International Law, January 1991, pp. 117ff.
6.For recent articles on U.S. lawlessness, see Noam Chomsky, “Letter from Lexington, December 8, 1991,” Lies Of Our Times, January–February 1992, pp. 11ff; Richard Falk, “The Extension of Law to Foreign Policy: The Next Constitutional Challenge,” in Alan Rosenbaum’s (ed.) Constitutionalism: The Philosophical Dimension, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1988; Richard Falk, “Preface,” Vietnam and International Law, Northampton, MA: Aletheia Press, 1990; Marcus Raskin, “American Idealism, War Crimes, and a Law of Personal Accountability,” in Essays of a Citizen, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1991, pp. 139–66; Daniel Ellsberg, “The Responsibility of Officials in a Criminal War,” in Papers on the War, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1971, pp. 275ff. For overviews, see Lori Damrosch (ed.) The International Court of Justice at a Crossroads, Dobbs Ferry, NY: Transnational Publishers/American Society of International Law, 1987; H. W. A. Thirlway, Non-Appearance Before the International Court of Justice, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1985.
7.United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), The State of the World’s Children 1989. New York: Oxford Univ. Press/UNICEF, 1989 (annual); and Lori Heise, “Killing the Children of the Third World,” Washington Post, April 21, 1991, p. B-1.
Index
Aachen, post-Nazi elite in, 185–188, 249
Abs, Hermann, 69–70, 71, 72, 73, 155–156, 267, 269
Accounting for Genocide (Fein), 10
Acheson, Dean, 267, 285
Achilles, Theodore, 117
Adam Opel corporation, 47
Adcock, Clarence, 251
Adenauer, Konrad, 156
AEG, 5, 47, 54, 265
Agency for Capital Transfer, 73
Airey, Terrence, 242
Aktion T4, 75
Albert, Heinrich, 53, 63, 97n
Albert & Westrick, 53
Aldrich, Winthrop, 267
Allen, Roger, 107
Allianz insurance group, 54
Allied Chemical Company, 48
Allied Control Council Law No. 10, 8n
Almond, Gabriel, 247, 248
Ambros, Otto, 86
American Metal Company, 56
American Potash and Chemical Corporation, 56
American Srbobran, 209n
Amnesty International, 284
Anglo-Persian Oil Company, 32
Ankara, 33, 36
Anschluss, 68, 70, 72
Antifa (antifascist) groups, 247–248, 268
anti-Semitism, 5, 231
in British Foreign Office, 100
individual vs. institutional, 68–69
Jews blamed for, 65n–66n
at State Department, 51, 147, 153, 283
see also Aryanization
antitrust action, 196, 265–266, 271; see also cartels
Appleman, John Alan, 270
Arbeitskreis für aussenivirtschaftliche Fragen, 155
Argentina, 49
Armaments and War Production Ministry, German, 85, 86n–87n
Armenian Genocide, 4, 9, 171, 174, 236
economic incentives and, 5–6
estimated number of victims in, 16, 316
historical background of, 28
Hitler influenced by, 10, 76, 282
oil politics and, 32–37, 282
other minority groups affected by, 29
Paris Conference and, 24, 25
property confiscated in, 28–29, 40
prosecutions for, 31–33, 36, 192
public opinion and, 29–30, 31, 34–35
reparations and, 36
resistance to, 7
women as victims in, 29
arms races:
in cold war, 283
pre-World War I, 18, 281
Army Air Force, U.S., 146, 159, 173
Aron, Manfred, 62n
Aronwerke Elektrizitäts AG, 62n
Aryanization, 5, 11, 57–58, 59–74, 97, 155, 330
in Austria, 68, 70–74, 156
compulsory, 60, 67–68, 69, 221
currency clearing and, 220
voluntary, 60–67
Ashcan, 234, 235
Associated Powers, 17
AT&T, 249, 264
Ataturk (Mustapha Kemal), 31, 33, 36
Atherton, Ray, 52
Atlantic Monthly, 35
atomic bombs, 92
“atonement payment” (Suhneleistung), 67–68
Auboin, Roger, 219, 222
Auffinger, Colonel, 246–247
Auschwitz, 13, 76, 151, 179
as combined death and labor camp, 91
corporations associated with, 290–292
first mass killings at, 80
IG Farben and, 84, 86, 227
mass deportations to, 138, 169, 177, 201, 236
outside knowledge of killings at, 81, 83–85
Australia, 128
Austria, 123, 166, 186, 200
Anschluss and, 68, 70, 72
Aryanization in, 68, 70–74
concentration camps in, 91
Austro-Hungarian empire, collapse of, 15, 22
Baer, Marcel de, 111
Bankers Trust Company, 50
Bank for International Settlements (BIS), 218–219, 220, 221, 222, 230
banking industry, 174
Aryanization role of, 64–65
denazification and, 196–197, 251–252
international, 47–51
Nazi ties of, 218–230
in 1920s and 1930s Germany, 53–55
in Occupied Germany, 222
Barrows, A. S., 264
Bauer, Yehuda, 9
Bay of Pigs invasion, 242
BBC, 83n
Belgium, 45, 80, 82, 106, 220–221, 246
Belzec, 80, 91, 108, 138
Beneš, Eduard, 22, 276
Bergen-Belsen, 292
Berle, Adolf, 104, 105, 142
Berlin, 15, 44, 50, 204, 225
Bernays, Murray, 179–180, 181, 183, 195
Bernstein, Bernard, 173
Betriebsrats, 247–248
Bicchierai, Giuseppe, 200, 201, 239
Biddle, Francis, 183
Bingel, Rudolf, 86, 155
BIS (Bank for International Settlements), 218–219, 220, 221, 222, 230
“black ravens,” 159
blacks, in Foreign Service, 51
Blayney, Michael, 185
Blessing, Karl, 71, 155, 223–225, 226–227, 230
Bloch, Anne, 61
BMW, 54
Bodson, Victor, 111
bonds:
Aryanization, 63–64
post-World War I loans of, 47–50
Bosch, Carl, 63
Bosch, Robert, 62
Boston Herald, 35
Bowers, Claude, 195
Bristol, Mark L., 33–34, 35
British Commonwealth, 128
British Petroleum, 32
Brockdorff-Rantzau, Ulrich von, 37–38
Brown, Lewis H., 263–265, 267
Brown Brothers, Harriman, 48, 49, 50
Buchenwald, 91, 96, 292–294
Budapest, 15, 22, 23, 44, 169, 233
Bulgaria, 16, 144
Bullitt, William, 52, 134
Bush, Prescott, 48
Business Week, 267
Butefisch, Heinrich, 226, 227
Byelorussia, 129
Cabot, John, 210
Cadogan, Sir Alexander, 169
Cambridge University, 109–110, 111
Canada, 128
Carey, James, 267
Carnegie, Andrew, 18
cartels, 48, 53, 57, 71, 140, 150, 174, 224
postwar breakup program for, 196
–197, 245, 249–250, 258, 262–263, 264, 280
Cassin, Rene, 111
Catholic Center party (Germany), 38
Central America, 6, 18
Central Europe, 13, 22, 52, 200–201, 204
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 48, 242–243, 267, 274, 277
creation of, 238
see also Office of Strategic Services Central Intelligence Group (CIG), 238, 240–241
Chase Bank, 265, 273
Chelmno, 80, 138
Chester, William Colby, 35
Chicago Sun, 177
children:
Morgenthau’s proposed reeducation plan for, 175
as victims of genocide, 4, 6, 16, 76, 94, 170, 287
China, Imperial, 19
Christian Democratic Union (West Germany), 53
Churchill, Winston, 145, 173, 176, 177, 214
Nazi atrocities condemned by, 100, 101
Nazi war crimes prosecutions sought by, 11, 143
at Tehran summit, 172
Trieste clash and, 206, 207
war crimes commission proposed by Roosevelt and, 105, 106, 137, 141
CIA, see Central Intelligence Agency
CIG (Central Intelligence Group), 238, 240–241
civilians:
Nuremberg trials of, 270
UNWCC jurisdiction and, 107, 164–167, 177–178
as victims of World War II bombing campaigns, 92–98, 102, 284, 313
World War I deaths of, 16, 24, 37–38
see also crimes against humanity; international law; war crimes
Clattenburg, A. E., 115
Clay, Lucius, 194, 250, 253, 264, 267, 274
Clemenceau, Georges, 26, 32
coal miners, rations for, 249
cold pogroms, 75, 83n
cold war:
outcome of, 281
roots of, 130, 207, 280–281, 283
collaborators, 189–192; 230; see also prisoner transfers
Collbohm, Frank, 173
Combined Chiefs of Staff, British-U.S., 183–184, 205
Cominform, 273
Commerce Department, U.S., 64
Committee for the Marshall Plan, 266–268
Committee of Union and Progress, see Ittihad party
Communist party (Italy), 200
Communists, 17, 22, 23, 57, 187, 193
as Holocaust victims, 75, 76, 115
concentration camps:
conditions in, 90–91, 157
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