business elite and, 155–157, 218, 223
Central Agency for Jewish Emigration, 73
cult movements and, 196
death squads of, 76, 77, 94, 119, 160, 269
forced labor program of, 85–92, 202, 225, 241, 289, 290, 336
Holocaust role of, 75, 79, 80, 81, 138, 169, 201, 236
in Operation Sunrise negotiations, 199–202, 204, 236, 237–238, 243
prosecution avoided by officers of, 236–244
separate peace tactics and, 122–125, 157
size of, 259
SSU (Strategic Services Unit), 238
Stalin, Josef, 11, 143, 172, 229–230
death of son of, 162n
inter-Allied mistrust and, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 129, 279–280
Operation Sunrise negotiations and, 202–204
Stalin, Svetlana, 162n
Stalingrad, 154
Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, 32, 47, 53, 64, 274
starvation diseases, 16, 91
State Department, U.S., 11, 21, 49, 234n, 240, 253
anti-Semitism at, 51, 147, 153, 283
and denial of Holocaust reports, 99–100, 103, 114–116, 138, 147, 152
European Division, 99, 103, 134
on Nazi forced-labor program, 98
postwar German reconstruction policy and, 172, 173, 175, 192–197
prisoner transfers opposed by, 209–211, 235
“Riga” faction of, 52, 192, 193, 206
Schacht defended by, 229
UNWCC thwarted by, 135–137, 164–168, 177–185, 255–258, 274
see also Foreign Service, U.S.
Staub, Ervin, 4, 9, 92, 97
“stern peace with reconciliation,” 172
Stettinius, Edward R., 167, 177, 183, 184
Stimson, Henry L., 178, 268
Stoewer-Werke AG, 62–63
Storey, Robert, 247
Strategic Bombing Survey, U.S., 93
Strategic Services Unit (SSU), U.S., 238
Streit, Christian, 97
Struss, Ernst A., 81
Sturmabteilung (SA), 178
Stutthof, 309–310
Suhneleistung, 67–68
Sullivan & Cromwell, 51, 264
as agent for U.S. investment in Europe, 46, 48–50
1930s German ties of, 56n
Rockefeller ties of, 273–274
Sunrise, Operation, 199–205, 236, 238, 240, 243, 245
Sweetser, Arthur, 17, 104–105
Switzerland, 21–22, 82, 103, 108, 114, 121, 122
Operation Sunrise negotiations in, 199–205
Syria, 30
Takyimi Vekayi, 31
Tass, 126n–127n, 128
Taylor, Edmond, 123
Taylor, Telford, 7, 237–238, 251, 269–270, 271
Tehran summit (1943), 172, 173, 175
Terni Societa per l’Industria e l’Electtricita, 50
Texaco, 53
Theresienstadt, 79
Tito (Josip Broz), 205–206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 231
Tokyo, 92
trade, 11
Nazi Germany-U.S., 55–56
Treasury Department, U.S., 56n, 150, 176
Treblinka, 13, 76, 80, 91, 108, 138, 170, 202, 242
Trieste, 200, 205–207, 209
Truman, Harry S, 237, 280
denazification and, 247, 250–251, 264
early German/Soviet aid proposal of, 119
Marshall Plan and, 268
as Roosevelt’s successor, 195, 206
separate peace treaty favored by, 157
Soviet policy of, 207, 237
Trieste clash and, 206–207
tuberculosis, 16
Turkey (Ottoman Empire), 15, 30–31, 32, 33, 36
Greeks in, 29, 33, 34, 37
see also Armenian Genocide; Ittihad party
Turkish Petroleum Company, 32
Twenty Letters to a Friend (Svetlana Stalin), 162n
Ukraine, 89, 90n, 119, 129, 225
Unilever, 223
Union of Polish Patriots, 128
United Fruit Company, 56
United Nations, 8, 13, 39, 105n, 172, 284
founding of, 203
“United Nations,” as term for World War II Allies, 105n
United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), 11, 199, 231, 237
background to formation of, 101–107
final months of, 274–275
first meeting of, 139–140
Horthy case and, 235
Hurst’s report on, 168–169
inactivity of, 163
jurisdiction of, 107, 139, 140, 141, 164–167, 177–178
member nations of, 128–129, 256
naming of, 106–107
Pell’s appointment to, 131
records sealed, 275–276
Soviet participation in, 125, 128–130, 137, 140
State Department’s thwarting of, 135–137, 164–168, 177–185, 255–258, 274
unresolved charges and, 272
war criminals list of, 176, 177–178
United States:
Hague and Geneva conventions as threat to sovereignty of, 23
Hungarian Revolution and, 22–23
international criminal court blocked by, 8
international law exploited by, 285–286
Middle East split by Great Britain, France, and, 30, 32–33, 36, 40
Paris Conference and, 17, 18, 23–26
World War I casualties suffered by, 16
World War II bombing strategy of, 92–98
World War II entered by, 119
World War I reparations and, 43–46
see also foreign policy, U.S.; German-U.S. relations; Soviet-U.S. relations
U.S. Rubber, 52
Ustashi organization, 207–208, 210
Vandenberg, Hoyt, 202
Vatican, see Roman Catholic Church
Vereinigte Stahlwerke, 55
Versailles, Treaty of (1919), 37, 38, 39, 64
VIAG holding company, 68, 70, 71, 72
victims, blaming of, 4
Völkischer Beobachter, 161
Volkswagen, 84, 86
von Gaevernitz, Gero, 205, 240, 242
W. A. Harriman & Co., 49, 50
Waldheim, Kurt, 13, 276
Wall Street Journal, 119, 181
Walworth, Arthur, 26
Wannsee meeting (1942), 77, 78, 79, 80, 225
War and the Working Class, 162
Warburg, Eric, 55, 69
War Cabinet, British, 169, 212
war crimes:
“analogous offenses” to, 246
bombing of cities as, 93
as conspiracy, 180, 229, 258–259
currency clearing as, 219–220
definition of, 8n, 20, 41, 45, 101–113, 168, 178
as economic issue, 41
Hague conventions on, 7
at issue at Paris Conference, 15, 17, 18, 23–26, 27
launching of World War II as, 112
Moscow Declaration on, 144, 145–146, 160, 161, 167, 184, 208, 215, 237, 246
national leaders as culpable for, 102, 112–113, 136, 153
as political issue, 40, 118–119, 125, 128–130, 143–144, 149–157, 207
U.S. policy toward, 227
see also crimes against humanity; international law
War Crimes Commission, 23–26
war crimes trials: of Ittihad party members, 31–33, 36, 192
Kharkov and Krasnodar trials, 160
Leipzig trials, 39
see also Nuremberg trials
War Criminals: Their Prosecution and Punishment (Glueck), 180
War Department, U.S., 149, 161, 166, 173, 178–180, 182, 195, 257, 258
War Office, British, 101
War Refugee Board, U.S., 177
Warsaw ghetto, 80, 108, 138
War Trade Board, U.S., 21
Washington Evening Star, 181
Washington Post, 177, 181, 184, 195
Weber, Ma
x, 38
Weibel, Max, 241
Weil, Martin, 51, 52
Welles, Sumner, 114, 130
Wenner, Eugen, 236, 238–240, 241, 243
Werth, Alexander, 170
Westrick, Gerhardt, 53, 156
Westrick, Ludger, 53, 156
White, Harry Dexter, 173, 272
“white lists,” 217–220, 222, 226n
Wilhelm II, Kaiser, 18, 24, 25, 26, 39–40
Wilkins, Mira, 47n
Willis, James, 24, 40
Wilson, Charles “Electric Charlie,” 52
Wilson, Woodrow, 21, 23
Allen Dulles and, 22, 233
Paris Conference and, 26, 37, 39
Winant, John, 104, 108, 139
Wise, Stephen, 114, 115
“Wise Men,” 325
Wolff, John, 256–257
Wolff, Karl, 12, 199, 201–202, 204–205, 236–243
women:
in Armenian Genocide, 29
in concentration camps, 88, 89–90
in Foreign Service, 51
Woods, Sam, 228, 235
World Jewish Congress, 82
World War I:
Associated Powers of, 17
Central Powers of, 16
civilian casualties in, 16, 24, 37–38
economic warfare in, 21
epidemics in, 16
as imperial squabble among the rich, 17
military casualties in, 15–16
military cost of, 16
propaganda in, 17
war crimes issues and, 15, 17, 18, 23–26, 27, 37–41
world political changes after, 15
see also Paris Conference
World War II:
Allied bombing of German cities in, 7, 92–98, 102, 284, 313
armistice terms in, 101–102, 144–145
German defeat at Stalingrad in, 154
inter-Allied mistrust in, 117–130
Operation Sunrise negotiations in, 199–205, 236, 238, 240, 243–244
psychological tactics in, 142, 146
separate treaties as issue in, 118–125, 157, 205
U.S. entry in, 119
war crime committed in launching of, 112
see also Germany, Nazi; Holocaust
Wysor, Rufus, 249, 252
Yalta conference (1945), 203, 208, 214
Yergin, Daniel, 52
Young Turks, see Ittihad party Yugoslavia, 15, 200
prisoner transfers and, 231, 234–236, 256
Trieste clash and, 205–211
Yugoslav War Crimes Commission, 235
Zilbert, Edward, 87
Zygielbojm, Szmul, 83n
Zyklon-B poison gas, 80, 83n
Acknowledgments
I am grateful for assistance in United States archives to Brewster Chamberlain and the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, Dennis Bilger of the Harry S Truman Library, to the research staffs at the U.S. National Archives, the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Library of Congress, and the McKeldon Library at the University of Maryland. I am especially grateful to Marilla Guptil of the United Nations Archives, who helped with research in the United Nations War Crimes Commission archives, and to Senator Claiborne Pell and Benjamin Ferencz, who permitted access to important collections of private papers.
My special thanks for assistance in German archives and for assistance in translations to Konrad Ege, Mike Fichter, Thomas and Rena Giefer, Bernd Greiner and the Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, Monika Halkort, Katharina Hering, Anke Mackrodt, David Marwell and the Berlin Document Center, Oliver Rathkolb, Ludger Wess, and the Bundesarchiv Koblenz. I am especially grateful to Gabrielle Körner and the Gedenkstatte Deutscher Widerstand, whose enthusiasm and research skills became essential to this project.
Thanks also to Rouben Adalian and the Armenian Assembly, Eddy Becker, Chip Berlet, Bernard Bernstein, Kai Bird, Tracy Brandt, Noam Chomsky, Arthur Macy Cox, Ann Coyle, Vakahn Dadrian, Rebecca Daugherty and the Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press, Carolyn Eisenberg, Richard Falk, Mika Fink, John Friedman, John Gimbel, Sue Goodwin, Jean Hardesty and Political Research Associates, Richard Hovannisian, Radu Ionid, Mary Kaufman, Earl Kintner, Mel Leffler, Mark Levy, Louis Madison, Jonathan Marshall, Marc Mazurovsky, Pat Merloe, Marcel Ophuls, Mark Pavlick, Vladimir Pechatnov, Robert Pehle, David Preston, Kate Porterfield, John Prados and Jill Gay, Marc Raskin, Jan Philipp Reemstsma, Alti Rodal, Steven Rogers, Eli Rosenbaum, Hans Safrian, Neal Sher, the Simon Wiesenthal Center, Bradley F. Smith, Ervin Staub, John Stevenson, Telford Taylor, George Wheeler, Murat Williams, and George Willis.
My special thanks to those whose editing, patience, and business acumen made this book possible: Walt Bode, Gail Ross, and John Herman (who should have been thanked last time, but wasn’t).
My most special gratitude goes to Bruce and Caroline Simpson, Susan Coyle, and Konrad Ege, who stuck with me through the whole thing.
About the Author
Christopher Simpson is a veteran reporter, historian, and analyst who teaches at American University’s School of Communication in Washington, DC. His work has won national awards for investigative journalism, history, and literature, and has been published in more than a dozen languages. Current study includes technology, democracy, revolution, and peer learning.
All rights reserved, including without limitation the right to reproduce this ebook or any portion thereof in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of the publisher.
Copyright © 1995 by Christopher Simpson
Cover design by Andrea Worthington
ISBN: 978-1-5040-4349-6
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