The Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire
Page 37
Murad IV
1623–1640
Ibrahim
1640–1649
Mehmed IV
1649–1687
Suleiman II
1687–1691
Ahmed II
1691–1695
Mustafa II
1695–1703
Ahmed III
1703–1730
Mahmud I
1730–1754
Osman III
1754–1757
Mustafa III
1757–1774
Abdulhamid I
1774–1788
Selim III
1788–1807
Mustafa IV
1807–1808
Mahmud II
1808–1839
Abdulmecid I
1839–1861
Abdulaziz
1861–1876
Murad V
1876
Abdulhamid II
1876–1909
Mehmed V
1909–1918
Mehmed VI Vahideddin
1918–1922
Caliph Abdulmecid (II)
1922–1924
ALTERNATIVE PLACE NAMES
Versions printed first are those generally used in the book.
Aleppo
Halab
Ankara
Angora
Brusa
Bursa
Chanak
Çanakkale
Constantinople
Istanbul
Dedeagatch
Alexandroúpolis
Edirne
Adrianople
Gallipoli
Gelibolu
Ioánnina
Janinà
Iskenderun
Alexandretta
Jassy
İaşi
Karlowitz
Sremski Karlovici
Kuchuk Kainardji
Kainardzhi
Lepanto
Návpaktos
Monastir
Bitola
Mudanya
Mudaniya (Mundanya)
Peloponnese
(The) Morea
Pera/Galata
Beyolu
Plovdiv
Philippopolis
Prinkipo
Büyükada
Ruschuk
Ruşe
Salonika
Thessaloniki
San Stefano
Yesilköy
Scutari (Albania)
Shkodra
Smyrna
Izmir
Tenedos
Bozcaada
Trebizond
Trabzon
Üsküb
Skopje
Üsküdar
Scutari (Turkey)
GLOSSARY
*:‘ş’ is sometimes transliterated ‘sh’
aga: chief palace official; commander
akinji: irregular horsemen in early Ottoman armies
Bab-i li: ‘the high gate’, ‘Sublime Porte’; administrative office of the Grand Vizier
bailo: ambassador of the Venetian republic
başi bozuka: ‘bashibazooks’; irregular military volunteers employed in Balkans in late XIXth century
bayrakdar: standard bearer
bey: a vassal ruler in early Ottoman empire; later, the governor of a sanjak
beylerbey: provincial governor (of a beylerbik)
caliph: (Arabic, khalifa), ‘Succesor to the Prophet’
Capitulations: system of extraterritorial jurisdiction and favoured trade tariffs established by bilateral treaties
ceşme: fountain
devşirme: tribute of Christian boys for conversion to Islam and service to the Sultan, raised from conquered Balkan lands mid-XVIIth century
Divan: Sultan’s imperial council and court of law
dragoman: interpreter to a foreign envoy
Effendi: Turkish title of respect
Ethnike Hetairia: Greek nationalist society in late XIXth century
evkaf (sing., vakif): Muslim religious charitable endowments
firman: imperial edict (later replaced by irade)
fetva: legal opinion given by a mufti skilled in Muslim Holy Law
Galatasaray: Imperial lycée; school opened in 1869; also known as Mekteb-i Sultani
Ghazi: honorific title denoting a warrior hero of Islam
Grand Vizier: Sultan’s chief minister
haiduk (hajduk): Balkan bandit, generally a Bulgar or Serb
hamidiye: auxiliary gendarmerie, mainly of Kurds, raised by Abdulhamid II
hafiye: secret police
hamam: bath
Harbiye: Military Academy in Pera
harem: women in the Sultan’s household; their part of a house
hatt-i hümayun: imperial rescript (decree)
hospodar: governor of Wallachia–Moldavia
Hümbaraciyan: bombardier corps
ilmiye: religious cultural institution, constituting the Muslim ‘Establishment’
iltizam: tax farm
imam: prayer leader in mosque
irade: imperial order (successor of firman)
Janissaries: Yeni Çeri; Sultan’s standing army, an élite corps until 1826
jihad: a Holy War against the Infidel
jurnalcis: police informers
kafe: ‘cage’; guarded palace apartments where Ottoman princes lived as virtual prisoners
kaimakan: deputy Grand Vizier
kaime: paper money
kapetanate: powerful Muslim ruling military caste in Bosnia
Kapudan Pasha: Grand Admiral
Khedive: Ottoman vassal ruler in Egypt, 1867–1914
kiliç kuşanmaci: sword-girding ceremony, equivalent to a sultan’s coronation
klephts: Greek bandits
Lale Devri: ‘Tulip Era’ (1718–30)
madresse: Muslim college of higher education
Mamelukes: originally slaves, became ruling caste in Egypt
Mecelle: Ottoman code of civil law, issued 1869–78
Meclis-i Ayan: Chamber of Notables; Senate (upper house of Ottoman parliament)
Meclis-i Mebusan: Chamber of Deputies (lower house of Ottoman parliament)
‘Mehmedchik’: nickname given to Ottoman private soldiery (cf. ‘Tommy Atkins’, ‘poilu’ etc.)
millet: legal status given to a recognized religious sect (Orthodox Christians; Jews, etc.); later signifies a nation
mufti: an expounder of Muslim Holy Law
Mulkiye: Ottoman civil service school (Mekteb-i Mulkiye)
mullah: high ranking Muslim judge and member of the ulema
namaz: the offering of prayers
Nizam-i Cedid: ‘New Order’ of Sultan Selim III, especially his reformed army
orta: battalion of Janissaries
Pasha: courtesy title for a senior official
Philike Hetairia: Society of Friends, a Greek nationalist movement
Porte: short for ‘Sublime Porte; see Bab-i li
redif: military reservists
rusdiye: secondary schools
sancaci şerif: Holy banner of Islam
sanjak: local administrative unit, a county
sarayi (sarai): palace
segban-i cedit: military bodyguard; ‘keepers of the hounds’
şelamlik: the gathering of men at the ceremony of midday Friday prayers
serdengeçi: crack Janissary infantry assault force
şeriat: Islamic Holy Law, regulating the Muslim code of behaviour
şeyhülislâm: Grand Mufti; head of Muslim hierarchy in Ottoman Empire
Shi’ites: fundamentalist Islamic believers; practitioners of Shi’a
silahtar: Imperial bodyguard of Janissary dragoons
sipahi: cavalryman, originally the holder of a timar or a horseman in the Sultan’s lifeguards
Sublime Porte: see Bab-i li
Sunni (Sunnites): orthodox Muslim worshippers
Tanzimat: re-structuring of government: XIXth century
reform era
timar: grant of revenue received from a particular area of land (but not the freehold of the land)
turbe: mausoleum
ulema: Muslim hierarchy
Valide Sultana: reigning Sultan’s mother
vladika: Montenegrin Prince-Bishop
vilayet: province
yamak: young Janissary mercenaries
NOTES
ABREVIATIONS USED IN THE NOTES
Add. MSS: Additional Manuscripts in the British Library
Ahmad: Feroz Ahmad, The Young Turks
Alderson: A.D. Alderson, The Structure of the Ottoman Dynasty
Anderson: M.S. Anderson, The Eastern Question
Barker: T.M. Barker, Double Eagle and Crescent
BDD: G.P. Gooch and H. Temperley, British Documents on the Origins of the War, 1898–1914
Cemal: Djemal Pasha, Memoirs of a Turkish Statesman
Corr. Nap.: Correspondence de Napoléon I
Davison, Essays: R. Davison, Essays in Ottoman and Turkish History.
Davison, Reform: R. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876
DBF: Documents of British Foreign Policy, Series I
DDF: Documents Diplomatiques Françaises, série 2 or 3
DDI: I Documenti Diplomatici italiani
EI i: The Encyclopaedia of Islam, first ed., 1913–1938
EI ii: The Encyclopedia of Islam, second ed., 1954–
FO: Foreign Office Papers in the Public Record Office.
Gibb and Bowen: Sir Hamilton Gibb and H. Bowen, Islamic Society and the West
GP: J. Lepsius, A. Mendelssohn Bartholdy, F. Thimme, Die Grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette
HJ: Historical Journal (Cambridge)
Hinsley: F.H. Hinsley (ed.), British Foreign Policy under Sir Edward Grey
Hurewitz: J.C. Hurewitz, Diplomacy in the Near and Middle East, A Documentary Record
IJMES: International Journal of Middle East Studies
JMH: Journal of Modern History
Kedourie: E. Kedourie, England and the Middle East
Kemal Sp.: M.K. Atatürk, Speech delivered by Ghazi Mustapha Kemal, October 1927
Kent: Marian Kent (ed.), The Great Powers and the End of the Ottoman Empire
Langer: W.L. Langer, The Diplomacy of Imperialism (rev. single volume edition)
Lewis: Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey
L-P: Stanley Lane-Poole, Life . . . of Viscount Stratford de Redcliffe
PRO: Public Record Office, Kew
SEER: Slavic and East European Review
Shaw Between: S.J. Shaw, Between Old and New: The Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim III
Shaw, Gazis: S.J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 1, Empire of the Gazis
Shaws: S.J. Shaw and E. K. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. 2, The Rise of Modern Turkey
Sumner: B.H. Sumner, Russia and the Balkans
Temp.: H.W.V. Temperley, Britain and the Near East; The Crimea
Trump.: Ulrich Trumpener, Germany and the Ottoman Empire, 1914–1918
Prologue: Ottomans Triumphant
1. ‘Dreadful happening’, cited from Agarathos monastery codex by Steven Runciman in The Fall of Constantinople 1453, p. 160. Runciman’s account remains the finest study of the event and makes an interesting contrast to chapter 68 of Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. See also Halil Inalcik, ‘The Policy of Mehmed II towards the Greek Population of Istanbul and the Byzantine Buildings of the City’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, no. 23, pp. 213–49; and, in general, his The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1600.
2. Lewis, pp. 317–18; Shaw, Gazis, p. 78.
3. N. Machiavelli, The Prince, fourth paragraph of Chapter IV.
4. Lewis, pp. 89–92; Shaw, Gazis, pp. 159–63; see also the entries in EI i on timar and wakf (Arabic spelling of vakif).
5. Shaw, Gazis, pp. 132–49.
6. Alderson, pp. 74–6.
7. Davison, Essays, pp. 16–17. Halil Inalcik, ‘The Heyday and Decline of the Ottoman Empire’ in Cambridge History of Islam, I, pp. 324–53. M.A. Cooke (ed.), A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730 is a useful selection of relevant chapters from the Cambridge histories. Andrina Stiles, The Ottoman Empire 1450–1700, is an excellent and stimulating introduction, a model of compression.
Chapter 1: Floodtide of Islam
1. Barker, pp. 244–5. Thomas M. Barker’s book is less well-known than John Stoye’s dramatic narrative The Siege of Vienna, but with great clarity he puts the whole campaign and its aftermath in a general historical perspective.
2. Ibid., pp. 68–71. The eminent German scholar Franz Babinger contributed a detailed biographical entry on Kara Mustafa to EI i.
3. Count Frosaco’s letters, originally printed in Revue de Hongrie, III, are cited by Barker, with this extract on p. 257.
4. Stoye, op. cit., and cf. E. Crankshaw, Maria Theresa, pp. 121–3.
5. The finest modern account of the battle of the Kahlenberg is in Barker, pp. 321–34.
6. For the diplomat (Benetti) and his report, see N. Barber, Lords of the Golden Horn, p. 105.
7. Richard Kreutel, Kara Mustafa vor Wien, pp. 121–4 and 184, an annotated translation of a diary kept by an anonymous Ottoman official. Kreutel’s work is critically examined by Barker, p. 403 (and cf. p. 364).
Chapter 2: Challenge from the West
1. Barker, pp. 369–70; Lord Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries, p. 349.
2. M.A. Cooke (ed.), Ottoman Empire to 1730, p. 190; N. Cheetham, Mediaeval Greece, pp.300–1.
3. Shaw, Gazis, p. 219; Alderson, pp. 65–6.
4. Ibid., pp. 32–6.
5. Selim II biography in EI i; Barber, p. 108.
6. Gibb and Bowen I, pp. 314–28; Nahsom Weissmann, Les Janissaries, pp. 30–48.
7. Gibb and Bowen II, pp. 191–2.
8. Shaw, Gazis, p. 223; Kinross, op. cit., p. 353; Cooke, op. cit., p. 193.
9. Lord Acton, Lectures on Modern History, p. 259.
10. Rifat Abou El-Haj, ‘Ottoman Diplomacy at Karlowitz’, Journal of American Oriental Society, vol. 87 (1967), pp. 498–512; Barker, pp. 373–4; Davison, Essays, p. 20; Shaw, Gazis, pp. 223–5; Kinross, op. cit., pp. 356–7, 373–6.
11. Alderson, p. 66; Shaw, Gazis, p. 228. See also the biographical entry by Bowen on Ahmed III in EI ii.
12. Gibb and Bowen II, p. 216 and pp. 233–4; C.A. Frazee, Christians and Sultans, pp. 6–7; G.G. Arnakis, ‘The Greek church of Constantinople and the Ottoman Empire’, JMH, vol. 24, September 1952, especially pp. 242–50.
13. A. de la Moutraye, Travels, vol. 1, p. 333.
14. Davison, Essays, p. 20; Kinross, op. cit., pp. 376 and 383. The saying about the turban seems to have originated with the Byzantine historian Michael Ducas.
Chapter 3: Tulip Time and After
1. Lewis, p. 437; for Koçi Bey, see C.H. Imber’s entry on him in EI ii, vol. 5.
2. M.L. Shay, Ottoman Empire from 1720 to 1734, pp. 17–27; Kinross, Ottoman Centuries, p. 378, pp. 380–2.
3. Lewis, pp. 45–6; Shaw, Gazis, p. 235.
4. Shay, op. cit., p. 19.
5. Letter to Lady Bristol, 10 April 1718, E. Halsband, Complete Letters of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, vol. 1, p. 397.
6. L. Cassels, The Struggle for the Ottoman Empire, p. 52; L.A. Vandal, Une ambassade française en Orient sous Louis XV, p. 88.
7. Ibid., p. 85.
8. Shay, op. cit., p. 22.
9. Kinross, Ottoman Centuries, p. 380; Shaw, Gazis, pp. 234, 293–4.
10. Ibid., pp. 236–7; N. Berkes, The Development of Secularization in Turkey, pp. 42–5; M. Daley, The Turkish Legacy, pp. 17–24; Lewis, pp. 50–1.
11. Jean-Claude Flachat, Observations sur le Commerce et sur les arts . . . même des Indes Orientales, p. 111.
12. Shay, op. cit. (14 January 1724), p. 22.
13. Ibid., p. 23.
14. Ibid., pp. 27–8; Vandal, op. cit., pp. 27–8.
15. Le
wis, p. 47.
16. Vandal, op. cit., pp. 116–46. The following paragraphs are based on H. Benedikt, Der Pascha-Graf Alexander von Bonneval, especially pp. 82–160.
17. Shaws, Gazis, pp. 246–7.
18. Anderson, p. xv; P.M. Holt, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, p. 111; A. Hourani, ‘The Changing Face of the Fertile Crescent in the Eighteenth Century’, Studia Islamica, 8 (1953), pp. 89–122.
19. For the fullest modern account of the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji, see Davison, Essays, pp. 29–44. English text, Hurewitz, I, pp. 54–61. For Franz Thugut’s report to Vienna of 17 August 1774 see Davison, Essays, p. 32, with comments on pp. 43–4.
20. The various forms of the treaty are further discussed by Professor Davison in his paper on ‘The Dosografa church in the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji’, (Essays, pp. 51–9), from which I have drawn for the final paragraphs of this chapter. See also his article, ‘The Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji, A Note on the Italian text’, International History Review, vol. 10, no. 4 (1988), pp. 611–21.
Chapter 4: Western Approaches
1. L. Cassels, Struggle for the Ottoman Empire, p. 110; Vandal, Une ambassade française, pp. 197 and 291; Kinross, Ottoman Centuries, p. 396.
2. W.R. Polk, The Opening of South Lebanon, pp. 10–18; P. Holt, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent, pp. 120–3.
3. On Ali Pasha in general see: D.N. Skiotis’s article, ‘From Bandit to Pasha’ in IJMES, vol. 2 (1971), pp. 219–44; William Plomer’s biography, Ali the Lion; and G. Remerland’s more scholarly study, Ali de Tekelen, Pasha de Janina, largely based on French diplomatic archives; Shaw, pp. 253–4.
4. Kinross, op. cit., pp. 410–13; G.S. Thomson, Catherine the Great and the Expansion of Russia, pp. 170–93.
5. Anderson, p. 20; Shaw, Between, pp. 64–8.
6. Ibid., pp. 14–17, with Louis XVI’s letter in full (pp. 16–17).
7. B. Lewis ‘The Impact of the French Revolution on Turkey’, Journal of World History, vol. 1 (1953), pp. 105–25, summarized Lewis, p. 63.