How to Read a Book: The Classic Guide to Intelligent Reading

by Mortimer J. Adler

  “After it was the pleasure of the citizens of the most beautiful and most famous daughter of Rome, Florence, to chase me forth from her sweet bosom,” Dante writes of his exile in the Convivio, “I have gone through almost every region to which this tongue of ours extends, showing against my will the wound of fortune.” It is recorded that Dante attended a meeting at San Godenzo, where an alliance was formed between the Whites in exile and the Ghibellines, but he does not seem to have been present in 1304 when the combined forces were defeated at Lastra. Perhaps he had already separated himself from the “evil and foolish company” of his fellow-exiles, “formed a party by himself,” and found his “first refuge and hostelry” at the court of the Della Scalas in Verona. Probably during the following years he spent time at Bologna and later at Padua, where Giotto is said to have entertained him. Toward the end of 1306 he was the guest of the Malaspinas in Lunigiana and acted as their ambassador in making peace with the Bishop of Luni. Some time after this date he may have visited Paris and attended the university there.

  During the early years of his exile Dante appears to have studied in those subjects which gained him the title of philosopher and theologian as well as poet. In the Convivio, probably written between 1305 and 1308, he tells how, after the death of Beatrice, he turned to Cicero’s De Amicitia and the Consolatio Philosophiae p. 381 of Boethius, which awoke in him the love of philosophy. To sing its praises he began his Convivio, which he intended to be a kind of treasury of universal knowledge in the form of poems connected by lengthy prose commentaries. At the same time he worked upon the De Vulgari Eloquentia, a Latin treatise in which he defended the use of Italian as a literary language.

  The election of Henry of Luxemburg as emperor in 1308 stirred Dante’s political hopes. When Henry entered Italy in 1310 at the head of an army, Dante in an epistle to the princes and people of Italy hailed the coming of a deliverer. At Milan he paid personal homage to Henry as his sovereign. When Florence, in alliance with King Robert of Naples, prepared to resist the emperor, Dante in a second epistle denounced them for their obstinacy and prophesied their doom. In a third epistle he upbraided the Emperor himself for his delay and urged him on against Florence. It was probably during this period that he wrote his De Monarchia, an intellectual defense of the emperor as the sovereign of the temporal order. The death of Henry in 1313, after a year or so of ineffectual fighting, brought an end to the political aspirations of Dante and his party. The city of Florence in 1311 and again in 1315 renewed his condemnation.

  After Henry’s death, Dante passed the rest of his life under the protection of various lords of Lombardy, Tuscany, and the Romagna. According to one tradition, he retired for a time to the monastery of Santa Croce di Fonte Avellana in the Appenines, where he worked on the Divine Comedy, which may have been planned as early as 1292. He was almost certainly for a time at the court of Can Grande della Scala, to whom he dedicated the Paradiso. In 1315 Florence issued a general recall of exiles. Dante refused to pay the required fine and to “bear the brand of oblation,” feeling that such a return would derogate from his fame and honor. To the end of his life he appears to have hoped that his Comedy would finally open the gates of the city to him.

  The last few years of the poet’s life were spent at Ravenna, under the patronage of Guido da Polenta, a nephew of Francesca da Rimini. Dante’s daughter, Beatrice, was a nun in that city, and one of his sons held a benefice there; his wife seems to have resided in Florence throughout his exile. Dante was greatly esteemed at Ravenna and enjoyed a congenial circle of friends. Here he completed the Divine Comedy and wrote two eclogues in Latin which p. 382 indicate that a certain contentment surrounded his closing days. Returning from a diplomatic mission to Venice on behalf of his patron, he caught a fever and died September 14, 1321. He was buried at Ravenna before the door of the principal church, with the highest honors, and “in the habit of a poet and a great philosopher.”

  Now spend about ten minutes pre-reading or skimming the following table of contents systematically. The text used here is that of the Charles Eliot Norton translation. Other translators would of course present the table of contents in somewhat different terms.

  Table of Contents of the Divine Comedy

  HELL

  CANTO I: Dante, astray in a wood, reaches the foot of a hill which he begins to ascend; he is hindered by three beasts; he turns back and is met by Virgil, who proposes to guide him into the eternal world.

  CANTO II: Dante, doubtful of his own powers, is discouraged at the outset. Virgil cheers him by telling him that he has been sent to his aid by a blessed Spirit from Heaven, who revealed herself as Beatrice. Dante casts off fear, and the poets proceed.

  CANTO III: The gate of Hell. Virgil leads Dante in. The punishment of those who had lived without infamy and without praise. Acheron, and the sinners on its bank. Charon. Earthquake. Dante swoons.

  CANTO IV: The further side of Acheron. Virgil leads Dante into Limbo, the First Circle of Hell, containing the spirits of those who lived virtuously but without faith in Christ. Greeting of Virgil by his fellow poets. They enter a castle, where are the shades of ancient worthies. After seeing them Virgil and Dante depart.

  CANTO V: The Second Circle, that of Carnal Sinners. Minos. Shades renowned of old. Francesca da Rimini.

  CANTO VI: The Third Circle, that of the Gluttonous. Cerberus. Ciacco.

  p. 383 CANTO VII: The Fourth Circle, that of the Avaricious and the Prodigal. Pluto. Fortune. The Styx. The Fifth Circle, that of the Wrathful.

  CANTO VIII: The Fifth Circle. Phlegyas and his boat. Passage of the Styx. Filippo Argenti. The City of Dis. The demons refuse entrance to the poets.

  CANTO IX: The City of Dis. Erichtho. The Three Furies. The Heavenly Messenger. The Sixth Circle: that of the Heretics.

  CANTO X: The Sixth Circle. Farinata degli Uberti. Cavalcante Cavalcanti. Frederick II.

  CANTO XI: The Sixth Circle. Tomb of Pope Anastasius. Discourse of Virgil on the divisions of the lower Hell.

  CANTO XII: The Seventh Circle, that of the Violent, first round: those who do violence to others. The Minotaur. The Centaurs. Chiron. Nessus. The River of boiling blood, and the sinners in it.

  CANTO XIII: The Seventh Circle, second round: those who have done violence to themselves and to their goods. The Wood of Self-murderers. The Harpies. Pier dello Vigne. Lano of Siena and others.

  CANTO XIV: The Seventh Circle, third round: those who have done violence to God. The Burning Sand. Capaneus. Figure of the Old Man in Crete. The rivers of Hell.

  CANTO XV: The Seventh Circle, third round: those who have done violence to Nature. Brunetto Latini. Prophecies of misfortune to Dante.

  CANTO XVI: The Seventh Circle, third round: those who have done violence to Nature. Guido Guerra, Tegghiaio Aldobrandi and Jacopo Rusticucci. The roar of Phlegethon as it pours downward. The cord thrown into the abyss.

  CANTO XVII. The Seventh Circle, third round: those who have done violence to Art. Geryon. The Usurers. Descent to the Eighth Circle.

  CANTO XVIII: The Eighth Circle: that of the fraudulent; first pouch: pandars and seducers. Venedico Caccianimico. Jason. Second pouch: false flatterers. Alessio Interminei. Thais.

  CANTO XIX: The Eighth Circle: third pouch: simonists. Pope Nicholas III.

  CANTO XX: The Eighth Circle: fourth pouch: diviners, soothsayers, and magicians. Amphiaraus. Tiresias. Aruns. Manto. Eurypylus. Michael Scott. Asdente.

  p. 384 CANTO XXI: The Eighth Circle: fifth pouch: barrators. A magistrate of Lucca. The Malebranche. Parley with them.

  CANTO XXII: The Eighth Circle: fifth pouch: barrators. Ciampolo of Navarre. Fra Gomita. Michel Zanche. Fray of the Malebranche.

  CANTO XXIII: The Eighth Circle. Escape from the fifth pouch. The sixth pouch: hypocrites, in cloaks of gilded lead. Jovial Friars. Caiaphas. Annas. Frate Catalano.

  CANTO XXIV: The Eighth Circle. The poets climb from the sixth pouch. Seventh pouch, filled with serpents, by which thieves are tormented. Vanni
Fucci. Prophecy of calamity to Dante.

  CANTO XXV: The Eighth Circle: seventh pouch: fraudulent thieves. Cacus. Agnello Brunelleschi and others.

  CANTO XXVI: The Eighth Circle: eighth pouch: fraudulent counsellors. Ulysses and Diomed.

  CANTO XXVII: The Eighth Circle: eighth pouch: fraudulent counsellors. Guido da Montefeltro.

  CANTO XXVIII: The Eighth Circle: ninth pouch: sowers of discord and schism. Mahomet and Ali. Fra Dolcino. Pier da Medicina. Curio. Mosca. Bertran de Born.

  CANTO XXIX: The Eighth Circle: ninth pouch. Geri del Bello. Tenth pouch: falsifiers of all sorts. Alchemists. Griffolino of Arezzo. Capocchio.

  CANTO XXX: The Eighth Circle: tenth pouch: false personators, false moneyers, and the false in words. Myrrha. Gianni Schicchi. Master Adam. Sinon of Troy.

  CANTO XXXI: The Eighth Circle. Giants. Nimrod. Ephialtes. Antæus sets the Poets down in the Ninth Circle.

  CANTO XXXII: The Ninth Circle: that of traitors; first ring: Caina. Counts of Mangona. Camicion de’ Pazzi. Second ring: Antenora. Bocca degli Abati. Buoso da Duera. Count Ugolino.

  CANTO XXXIII: The Ninth Circle: second ring: Antenora. Count Ugolino. Third ring: Ptolomea. Frate Alberigo. Branca d’ Oria.

  CANTO XXXIV: The Ninth Circle: fourth ring: Judecca. Lucifer. Judas, Brutus and Cassius. Centre of the Universe. Passage from Hell. Ascent to the surface of the Southern Hemisphere.

  PURGATORY

  CANTO I: The new theme. Invocation to the Muses. Dawn of p. 385 Easter on the shore of Purgatory. The Four Stars. Cato. The cleansing of Dante’s face from the stains of Hell.

  CANTO II: Sunrise. The Poets on the shore. Coming of a boat, guided by an angel, bearing souls to Purgatory. Their landing. Casella and his song. Cato hurries the souls to the mountain.

  CANTO III: Ante-Purgatory. Souls of those who have died in contumacy of the Church. Manfred.

  CANTO IV: Ante-Purgatory. Ascent to a shelf of the mountain. The negligent, who postponed repentance to the last hour. Belacqua.

  CANTO V: Ante-Purgatory. Spirits who had delayed repentance, and met with death by violence, but died repentant. Jacopo del Cassero. Buonconte da Montefeltro. Pia de’ Tolomei.

  CANTO VI: Ante-Purgatory. More spirits who had deferred repentance till they were overtaken by a violent death. Efficacy of prayer. Sordello. Apostrophe to Italy.

  CANTO VII: Virgil makes himself known to Sordello. Sordello leads the Poets to the Valley of the Princes who had been negligent of salvation. He points them out by name.

  CANTO VIII: Valley of the Princes. Two Guardian Angels. Nino Visconti. The Serpent. Corrado Malaspina.

  CANTO IX: Slumber and Dream of Dante. The Eagle. Lucia. The Gate of Purgatory. The Angelic Gatekeeper. Seven P’s inscribed on Dante’s Forehead. Entrance to the First Ledge.

  CANTO X: Purgatory proper. First Ledge: the Proud. Examples of Humility sculptured on the rock.

  CANTO XI: First Ledge: the Proud. Prayer. Omberto Aldobrandeschi. Oderisi d’ Agubbio. Provenzan Salvani.

  CANTO XII. First Ledge: the Proud. Instances of the punishment of Pride graven on the pavement. Meeting with an Angel who removes one of the P’s. Ascent to the Second Ledge.

  CANTO XIII: Second Ledge: the Envious. Examples of Love. The Shades in haircloth, and with sealed eyes. Sapia of Siena.

  CANTO XIV: Second Ledge: the Envious. Guido del Duca. Rinieri de’ Calboli. Instances of the punishment of Envy.

  CANTO XV: Second Ledge: the Envious. An Angel removes the second P from Dante’s forehead. Discourse concerning the Sharing of Good. Ascent to the Third Ledge: the Wrathful. Vision of Examples of Forbearance.

  CANTO XVI: Third Ledge: the Wrathful. Marco Lombardo. p. 386 His discourse on Free Will, and the corruption of the World.

  CANTO XVII: Third Ledge: the Wrathful. Issue from the Smoke. Vision of Instances of the punishment of Anger. Ascent to the Fourth Ledge, where Sloth is purged. Second Nightfall in Purgatory. Virgil explains how Love is the root alike of Virtue and of Sin.

  CANTO XVIII: Fourth Ledge: the Slothful. Discourse of Virgil on Love and Free Will. Throng of Spirits running in haste to redeem their Sin. Examples of Zeal. The Abbot of San Zeno. Instances of the punishment of Sloth. Dante falls asleep.

  CANTO XIX: Fourth Ledge. Dante dreams of the Siren. The Angel of the Pass. Ascent to the Fifth Ledge: The Avaricious. Pope Adrian V.

  CANTO XX: Fifth Ledge: the Avaricious. The Spirits celebrate examples of Poverty and Bounty. Hugh Capet. His discourse on his descendants. Instances of the punishment of Avarice. Trembling of the Mountain.

  CANTO XXI: Fifth Ledge. The shade of Statius. Cause of the trembling of the Mountain. Statius does honor to Virgil.

  CANTO XXII: Ascent to the Sixth Ledge. Discourse of Statius and Virgil. Entrance to the Ledge: the Gluttonous. The Mystic Tree. Examples of Temperance.

  CANTO XXIII: Sixth Ledge: the Gluttonous. Forese Donati. Nella. Rebuke of the women of Florence.

  CANTO XXIV: Sixth Ledge: the Gluttonous. Forese Donati. Piccarda Donati. Bonagiunta of Lucca. Pope Martin IV. Ubaldin dalla Pila. Bonifazio. Messer Marchese. Prophecy of Bonagiunta concerning Gentucca, and of Forese concerning Corso de’ Donati.. Second Mystic Tree. Instances of the punishment of gluttony. The Angel of the Pass.

  CANTO XXV: Ascent to the Seventh Ledge. Discourse of Statius on generation, the infusion of the Soul into the body, and the corporeal semblance of Souls after death. The Seventh Ledge: the Lustful. The mode of their Purification. Examples of Chastity.

  CANTO XXVI: Seventh Ledge: the Lustful. Sinners in the fire, going in opposite directions. Instances of the punishment of Lust. Guido Guinicelli. Arnaut Daniel.

  CANTO XXVII: Seventh Ledge: the Lustful. Passage through the Flames. Stairway in the rock. Night upon the stairs. Dream of Dante. Morning. Ascent to the Earthly Paradise. Last words of Virgil.

  p. 387 CANTO XXVIII: The Earthly Paradise. The Forest. A Lady gathering flowers on the bank of a little stream. Discourse with her concerning the nature of the place.

  CANTO XXIX: The Earthly Paradise. Mystic Procession or Triumph of the Church.

  CANTO XXX: The Earthly Paradise. Beatrice appears. Departure of Virgil. Reproof of Dante by Beatrice.

  CANTO XXXI: The Earthly Paradise. Reproachful discourse of Beatrice, and confession of Dante. Passage of Lethe. Appeal of the Virtues to Beatrice. Her Unveiling.

  CANTO XXXII: The Earthly Paradise. Return of the Triumphal procession. The Chariot bound to the Mystic Tree. Sleep of Dante. His waking to find the Triumph departed. Transformation of the Chariot. The Harlot and the Giant.

  CANTO XXXIII: The Earthly Paradise. Prophecy of Beatrice concerning one who shall restore the Empire. Her discourse with Dante. The river Eunoë. Dante drinks of it, and is fit to ascend to Heaven.

  PARADISE

  CANTO I: Proem. Invocation. Beatrice, and Dante transhumanized, ascend through the Sphere of Fire toward the Moon. Beatrice explains the cause of their ascent.

  CANTO II: Proem. Ascent to the Moon. The cause of Spots on the Moon. Influence of the Heavens.

  CANTO III: The Heaven of the Moon. Spirits whose vows had been broken. Piccarda Donati. The Empress Constance.

  CANTO IV: Doubts of Dante, respecting the justice of Heaven and the abode of the blessed, solved by Beatrice. Question of Dante as to the possibility of reparation for broken vows.

  CANTO V: The sanctity of vows, and the seriousness with which they are to be made or changed. Ascent to the Heaven of Mercury. The shade of Justinian.

  CANTO VI: Justinian tells of his own life. The story of the Roman Eagle. Spirits in the planet Mercury. Romeo.

  CANTO VII: Discourse of Beatrice. The Fall of Man. The scheme of his Redemption.

  CANTO VIII: Ascent to the Heaven of Venus. Spirits of Lovers. Charles Martel. His discourse on the order and the varieties in mortal things.

  p. 388 CANTO IX: The planet Venus. Conversation of Dante with Cunizza da Romano. With Folco of Marseilles. Rahab. Avarice of the Papal Court.

  C
ANTO X: Ascent to the Sun. Spirits of the wise, and the learned in theology. St. Thomas Aquinas. He names to Dante those who surround him.

  CANTO XI: The Vanity of worldly desires. St. Thomas Aquinas undertakes to solve two doubts perplexing Dante. He narrates the life of St. Francis of Assisi.

  CANTO XII: Second circle of the spirits of wise religious men, doctors of the Church and teachers. St. Bonaventura narrates the life of St. Dominic, and tells the names of those who form the circle with him.

  CANTO XIII: St. Thomas Aquinas speaks again, and explains the relation of the wisdom of Solomon to that of Adam and of Christ, and declares the vanity of human judgment.

  CANTO XIV: At the prayer of Beatrice, Solomon tells of the glorified body of the blessed after the Last Judgment. Ascent to the Heaven of Mars. Spirits of the Soldiery of Christ in the form of a Cross with the figure of Christ thereon. Hymn of the Spirits.

  CANTO XV: Dante is welcomed by his ancestor, Cacciaguida. Cacciaguida tells of his family, and of the simple life of Florence in the old days.

  CANTO XVI: The boast of blood. Cacciaguida continues his discourse concerning the old and the new Florence.

  CANTO XVII: Dante questions Cacciaguida as to his fortunes. Cacciaguida replies, foretelling the exile of Dante, and the renown of his Poem.

  CANTO XVIII: The Spirits in the Cross of Mars. Ascent to the Heaven of Jupiter. Words shaped in light upon the planet by the Spirits. Denunciation of the avarice of the Popes.