The Silk Roads: A New History of the World

by Frankopan, Peter

  11D. Murphy, What Stalin Knew: The Enigma of Barbarossa (New Haven, 2005).

  12R. Medvedev and Z. Medvedev, The Unknown Stalin: His Life, Death and Legacy (London, 2003), p. 226.

  13G. Zhukov, Vospominaniya i rasmyshleniya, 3 vols (Moscow, 1995), 1, p. 258.

  14Assarasson to Stockholm, 21 June 1941, cited by G. Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia (New Haven, 1999), p. 306.

  15Dokumenty vneshnei politiki SSSR, 24 vols (Moscow, 1957–), 23.2, pp. 764–5.

  16A. Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (New York, 2006), pp. 452–60; R. di Nardo, Mechanized Juggernaut or Military Anachronism? Horses and the German Army of World War II (Westport, CT, 1991), pp. 35–54.

  17Cited by Beevor, Stalingrad (London, 1998), p. 26.

  18J. Stalin, O Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine Sovestkogo Soiuza (Moscow, 1944), p. 11.

  19A. von Plato, A. Leh and C. Thonfeld (eds), Hitler’s Slaves: Life Stories of Forced Labourers in Nazi-Occupied Europe (Oxford, 2010).

  20E. Radzinsky, Stalin (London, 1996), p. 482; N. Ponomariov, cited by I. Kershaw, Fateful Choices: Ten Decisions that Changed the World, 1940–1941 (London, 2007), p. 290.

  21Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 191.

  22H. Trevor-Roper, Hitler’s Table Talk, 1941–1944: His Private Conversations (London, 1953), p. 28.

  23W. Lower, ‘“On Him Rests the Weight of the Administration”: Nazi Civilian Rulers and the Holocaust in Zhytomyr’, in R. Brandon and W. Lower (eds), The Shoah in Ukraine: History, Testimony, Memorialization (Bloomington, IN, 2008), p. 225.

  24E. Steinhart, ‘Policing the Boundaries of “Germandom” in the East: SS Ethnic German Policy and Odessa’s “Volksdeutsche”, 1941–1944’, Central European History 43.1 (2010), 85–116.

  25W. Hubatsch, Hitlers Weisungen für die Kriegführung 1939–1945. Dokumente des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Munich, 1965), pp. 139–40.

  26Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, pp. 124, 127.

  27Ibid., p. 85; H. Lindemann, Der Islam im Aufbruch, in Abwehr und Angriff (Leipzig, 1941).

  28Churchill, Second World War, 3, p. 424.

  29A. Michie, ‘War in Iran: British Join Soviet Allies’, Life, 26 January 1942, 46.

  30R. Sanghvi, Aryamehr: The Shah of Iran: A Political Biography (London, 1968), p. 59; H. Arfa, Under Five Shahs (London, 1964), p. 242.

  31Bullard to Foreign Office, 25 June 1941, in R. Bullard, Letters from Teheran: A British Ambassador in World War II Persia, ed. E. Hodgkin (London, 1991), p. 60.

  32Lambton to Bullard, 4 October 1941, FO 416/99.

  33Intelligence Summary for 19–30 November, 2 December 1941, FO 416/99.

  34‘Minister in Iran to the Foreign Ministry’, 9 July 1941, Documents on German Foreign Policy, 1918–1945, Series D, 13, pp. 103–4.

  35P. Dharm and B. Prasad (eds), Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the Second World War, 1939–1945: The Campaign in Western Asia (Calcutta, 1957), pp. 126–8.

  36Cited by J. Connell, Wavell: Supreme Commander (London, 1969), pp. 23–4.

  37R. Stewart, Sunrise at Abadan: The British and Soviet Invasions of Iran, 1941 (New York, 1988), p. 59, n. 26.

  38‘Economic Assistance to the Soviet Union’, Department of State Bulletin 5 (1942), 109.

  39R. Sherwood, The White House Papers of Harry L. Hopkins, 2 vols (Washington, DC, 1948), 1, pp. 306–9.

  40Michie, ‘War in Iran’, 40–4.

  41Bullard, Letters, p. 80.

  42Reza Shah Pahlavi to Roosevelt, 25 August 1941; Roosevelt to Reza Shah Pahlavi, 2 September 1941, cited by M. Majd, August 1941: The Anglo-Russian Occupation of Iran and Change of Shahs (Lanham, MD, 2012), pp. 232–3; Stewart, Abadan, p. 85.

  43J. Buchan, Days of God: The Revolution in Iran and its Consequences (London, 2012), p. 27.

  44Military attaché, ‘Intelligence summary 27’, 19 November 1941, FO 371 27188.

  45R. Dahl, Going Solo (London, 1986), p. 193.

  46F. Halder, Kriegstagebuch: tägliche Aufzeichnungen des Chefs des Generalstabes des Heeres, 1939–1942, ed. H.-A. Jacobson and A. Philippi, 3 vols (Stuttgart, 1964), 3, 10 September 1941, p. 220; 17 September 1941, p. 236.

  47D. Stahel, Kiev 1941: Hitler’s Battle for Supremacy in the East (Cambridge, 2012), pp. 133–4.

  48H. Pichler, Truppenarzt und Zeitzeuge. Mit der 4. SS-Polizei-Division an vorderster Front (Dresden, 2006), p. 98.

  49Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, 27 August 1941, Teil II, 1, p. 316.

  50Cited by Beevor, Stalingrad, pp. 56–7.

  51Fritz, Ostkrieg, pp. 158–9.

  52A. Hillgruber, Staatsmänner und Diplomaten bei Hitler. Vertrauliche Aufzeichungen 1939–1941 (Munich, 1969), p. 329.

  53W. Kemper, ‘Pervitin – Die Endsieg-Droge’, in W. Pieper (ed.), Nazis on Speed: Drogen im Dritten Reich (Lohrbach, 2003), pp. 122–33.

  54R.-D. Müller, ‘The Failure of the Economic “Blitzkrieg Strategy”’, in H. Boog et al. (eds), The Attack on the Soviet Union, vol. 4 of W. Deist et al. (eds), Germany and the Second World War, 9 vols (Oxford, 1998), pp. 1127–32; Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 150.

  55M. Guglielmo, ‘The Contribution of Economists to Military Intelligence during World War II’, Journal of Economic History 66.1 (2008), esp. 116–20.

  56R. Overy, War and the Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford, 1994), pp. 264, 278; J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II (New York, 1991), pp. 78–9.

  57A. Milward, War, Economy and Society, 1939–45 (Berkeley, 1977), pp. 262–73; Tooze, Wages of Destruction, pp. 513–51.

  58German radio broadcast, 5 November 1941, Propaganda Research Section Papers, Abrams Papers, 3f 44/41.

  59‘Gains of Germany (and her Allies) through the Occupation of Soviet Territory’, in Coordinator of Information, Research and Analysis Branch, East European Section Report, 17 (March 1942), pp. 10–11.

  60‘Reich Marshal of the Greater German Reich’, 11th meeting of the General Council, 24 June 1941, cited by Müller, ‘Failure of the Economic “Blitzkrieg Strategy”’, p. 1142.

  61Halder, Kriegstagebuch, 8 July 1941, 3, p. 53.

  62C. Streit, ‘The German Army and the Politics of Genocide’, in G. Hirschfeld (ed.), The Policies of Genocide: Jews and Soviet Prisoners of War in Nazi Germany (London, 1986), pp. 8–9.

  63J. Hürter, Hitlers Heerführer. Die deutschen Oberbefehlshaber im Krieg gegen die Sowjetunion 1941/1942 (Munich, 2006), p. 370.

  64Streit, Keine Kameraden, p. 128; also see Snyder, Bloodlands, pp. 179–84.

  65R. Overmans, ‘Die Kriegsgefangenenpolitik des Deutschen Reiches 1939 bis 1945’, in J. Echternkamp (ed.), Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, 10 vols (Munich, 1979–2008), 9.2, p. 814; Browning, Origins of the Final Solution, p. 357; Snyder, Bloodlands, pp. 185–6.

  66K. Berkhoff, ‘The “Russian” Prisoners of War in Nazi-Ruled Ukraine as Victims of Genocidal Massacre’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 15.1 (2001), 1–32.

  67Röhl, The Kaiser and his Court, p. 210. For the Kaiser’s attitudes to Jews, see L. Cecil, ‘Wilhelm II und die Juden’, in W. Mosse (ed.), Juden im Wilhelminischen Deutschland, 1890–1914 (Tübingen, 1976), pp. 313–48.

  68Hitler’s speech to the Reichstag, 30 January 1939, in Verhandlungen des Reichstags, Stenographische Berichte 4. Wahlperiode 1939–1942 (Bad Feilnbach, 1986), p. 16.

  69Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, p. 94.

  70H. Jansen, Der Madagaskar-Plan: Die beabsichtigte Deportation der europäischen Juden nach Madagaskar (Munich, 1997), esp. pp. 309–11. For theories about the Malagasy, see E. Jennings, ‘Writing Madagascar Back into the Madagascar Plan’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 21.2 (2007), 191.

  71F. Nicosia, ‘Für den Status-Quo: Deutschland und die Palästinafrage in der Zwischenkriegszeit’, in L. Schatkowski Schilcher and C. Scharf (eds), Der Nahe Osten in der Zwischenkriegszeit 1919–1939. Die Interdependenz von Politi
k, Wirtschaft und Ideologie (Stuttgart, 1989), p. 105.

  72D. Cesarani, Eichmann: His Life and Crimes (London, 2004), pp. 53–6.

  73Cited by D. Yisraeli, The Palestinian Problem in German Politics, 1889–1945 (Ramat-Gan, 1974), p. 315.

  74J. Heller, The Stern Gang: Ideology, Politics and Terror, 1940–1949 (London, 1995), pp. 85–7.

  75T. Jersak, ‘Blitzkrieg Revisited: A New Look at Nazi War and Extermination Planning’, Historical Journal 43.2 (2000), 582.

  76See above all G. Aly, ‘“Judenumsiedlung”: Überlegungen zur politischen Vorgeschichte des Holocaust’, in U. Herbert (ed.), Nationalsozialistische Vernichtungspolitik 1939–1945: neue Forschungen und Kontroversen (Frankfurt-am-Main, 1998), pp. 67–97.

  77Streit, ‘The German Army and the Politics of Genocide’, p. 9; Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 171.

  78J.-M. Belière and L. Chabrun, Les Policiers français sous l’Occupation, d’après les archives inédites de l’épuration (Paris, 2001), pp. 220–4; P. Griffioen and R. Zeller, ‘Anti-Jewish Policy and Organization of the Deportations in France and the Netherlands, 1940–1944: A Comparative Study’, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 20.3 (2005), 441.

  79L. de Jong, Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, 14 vols (The Hague, 1969–91), 4, pp. 99–110.

  80For the Wannsee conference, C. Gerlach, ‘The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler’s Decision in Principle to Exterminate All European Jews’, Journal of Modern History 70 (1998), 759–812; Browning, Origins of the Final Solution, pp. 374ff.

  81R. Coakley, ‘The Persian Corridor as a Route for Aid to the USSR’, in M. Blumenson, K. Greenfield et al., Command Decisions (Washington, DC, 1960), pp. 225–53; also T. Motter, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington, DC, 1952).

  82For the convoys, R. Woodman, Arctic Convoys, 1941–1945 (London, 2004).

  83J. MacCurdy, ‘Analysis of Hitler’s Speech on 26th April 1942’, 10 June 1942, Abrams Archive, Churchill College, Cambridge.

  84E. Schwaab, Hitler’s Mind: A Plunge into Madness (New York, 1992).

  85Rubin and Schwanitz, Nazis, Islamists, pp. 139–41. In general, M. Carver, El Alamein (London, 1962).

  86For the US in the Pacific, see H. Willmott, The Second World War in the Far East (London, 2012); also see A. Kernan, The Unknown Battle of Midway: The Destruction of the American Torpedo Squadrons (New Haven, 2005).

  87Cited by Fritz, Ostkrieg, p. 235; for the context, pp. 231–9.

  88Ibid., pp. 261–70; Speer, Inside the Third Reich, p. 215.

  89For the visit to Moscow in October 1944, see CAB 120/158.

  90M. Gilbert, Churchill: A Life (London, 1991), p. 796; R. Edmonds, ‘Churchill and Stalin’, in R. Blake and R. Louis (eds), Churchill (Oxford, 1996), p. 320. Also Churchill, Second World War, 6, pp. 227–8.

  91W. Churchill, ‘The Sinews of Peace’, 5 March 1946, in J. Muller (ed.), Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech Fifty Years Later (London, 1999), pp. 8–9.

  92D. Reynolds, From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s (Oxford, 2006), pp. 250–3.

  93M. Hastings, All Hell Let Loose: The World at War, 1939–1945 (London, 2011), pp. 165–82; Beevor, Stalingrad, passim.

  94See A. Applebaum, Iron Curtain: The Crushing of Eastern Europe, 1944–56 (London, 2012).

  Chapter 21 – The Road of Cold Warfare

  1A. Millspaugh, Americans in Persia (Washington, DC, 1946), Appendix C; B. Kuniholm, The Origins of the Cold War in the Near East: Great Power Conflict and Diplomacy in Iran, Turkey and Greece (Princeton, 1980), pp. 138–43.

  2The Minister in Iran (Dreyfus) to the Secretary of State, 21 August 1941, Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers 1941, 7 vols (Washington, DC, 1956–62), 3, p. 403.

  3Ali Dashti, writing in December 1928, cited by Buchan, Days of God, p. 73.

  4B. Schulze-Holthus, Frührot in Persien (Esslingen, 1952), p. 22. Schulze-Holthus was sent to Iran by the Abwehr (German military intelligence) as vice-consul in the city of Tabriz. He remained under cover in Teheran during the war, canvassing support among anti-Allied factions. Also see here S. Seydi, ‘Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Activities in Iran during the Second World War’, Middle Eastern Studies 46.5 (2010), 733–52.

  5Bullard, Letters, p. 154.

  6Ibid., p. 216.

  7Ibid., p. 187.

  8C. de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia: Muhammad Mossadegh and a Very British Coup (London, 2012), pp. 120–3.

  9Shepherd to Furlonge, 6 May 1951, FO 248/1514.

  10The Observer, 20 May 1951, FO 248/1514.

  11Cited by de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 123, n. 12.

  12Buchan, Days of God, p. 82.

  13L. Elwell-Sutton, Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics (London, 1955), p. 65.

  14Ibid.

  15C. Bayly and T. Harper, Forgotten Armies: The Fall of British Asia, 1841–1945 (London, 2004), pp. 182, 120.

  16I. Chawla, ‘Wavell’s Breakdown Plan, 1945–47: An Appraisal’, Journal of Punjabi Studies 16.2 (2009), 219–34.

  17W. Churchill, House of Commons debates, 6 March 1947, Hansard, 434, 676–7.

  18See L. Chester, Borders and Conflict in South Asia: The Radcliffe Boundary Commission and the Partition of the Punjab (Manchester, 2009). Also A. von Tunzelmann, Indian Summer: The Secret History of the End of an Empire (London, 2007).

  19I. Talbot, ‘Safety First: The Security of Britons in India, 1946–1947’, Transactions of the RHS 23 (2013), pp. 203–21.

  20K. Jeffrey, MI6: The History of the Secret Intelligence Service, 1909–1949 (London, 2010), pp. 689–90.

  21N. Rose, ‘A Senseless, Squalid War’: Voices from Palestine 1890s–1948 (London, 2010), pp. 156–8.

  22A. Halamish, The Exodus Affair: Holocaust Survivors and the Struggle for Palestine (Syracuse, NY, 1998).

  23Cited by J. Glubb, A Soldier with the Arabs (London, 1957), pp. 63–6.

  24E. Karsh, Rethinking the Middle East (London, 2003), pp. 172–89.

  25F. Hadid, Iraq’s Democratic Moment (London, 2012), pp. 126–36.

  26Beeley to Burrows, 1 November 1947, FO 371/61596/E10118.

  27Outward Saving Telegram, 29 July 1947; Busk to Burrows, 3 November 1947, FO 371/61596.

  28K. Kwarteng, Ghosts of Empire: Britain’s Legacies in the Modern World (London, 2011), p. 50.

  29B. Uvarov and A. Waterston, ‘MEALU General Report of Anti-Locust Campaign, 1942–1947’, 19 September 1947, FO 371/61564.

  30N. Tumarkin, ‘The Great Patriotic War as Myth and Memory’, European Review 11.4 (2003), 595–7.

  31J. Stalin, ‘Rech na predvybornom sobranii izbiratelei Stalinskogo izbiratel’nogo okruga goroda Moskvy’, in J. Stalin, Sochineniya, ed. R. McNeal, 3 vols (Stanford, CA, 1967), 3, p. 2.

  32B. Pimlott (ed.), The Second World War Diary of Hugh Dalton, 1940–45 (London, 1986), 23 February 1945, marginal insertion, p. 836, n. 1.

  33It seems these words were added by Churchill on the train on the way to Fulton, J. Ramsden, ‘Mr Churchill Goes to Fulton’, in Muller, Churchill’s ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech: Fifty Years Later, p. 42. In general, P. Wright, Iron Curtain: From Stage to Cold War (Oxford, 2007).

  34B. Rubin, The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1941–1947: The Road to the Cold War (London, 1980), pp. 73ff.

  35‘Soviet Military and Political Intentions, Spring 1949’, Report No. 7453, 9 December 1948.

  36K. Blake, The US–Soviet Confrontation in Iran 1945–62: A Case in the Annals of the Cold War (Lanham, MD, 2009), pp. 17–18.

  37‘General Patrick J. Hurley, Personal Representative of President Roosevelt, to the President’, 13 May 1943, FRUS, Diplomatic Papers 1943: The Near East and Africa, 4, pp. 363–70.

  38Millspaugh, Americans in Persia, p. 77.

  39A. Offner, Another Such Victory: President Truman and the Cold War, 1945–53 (Stanford, 2002), p. 128.

  40‘The Chargé in the Soviet Union (Kennan) to the Secretary
of State’, 22 February 1946, FRUS 1946: Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, 6, pp. 696–709.

  41D. Kisatsky, ‘Voice of America and Iran, 1949–1953: US Liberal Developmentalism, Propaganda and the Cold War’, Intelligence and National Security 14.3 (1999), 160.

  42‘The Present Crisis in Iran, undated paper presented in the Department of State’, FRUS, 1950: The Near East, South Asia, and Africa, 5, pp. 513, 516.

  43M. Byrne, ‘The Road to Intervention: Factors Influencing US Policy toward Iran, 1945–53’, in M. Gasiorowski and M. Byrne (eds), Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 Coup in Iran (Syracuse, NY, 2004), p. 201.

  44Kisatsky, ‘Voice of America and Iran’, 167, 174.

  45M. Gasiorowski, US Foreign Policy and the Shah: Building a Client State in Iran (Ithaca, NY, 1991), pp. 10–19.

  46Buchan, Days of God, pp. 30–1.

  47Cited by Yergin, The Prize, p. 376.

  48A. Miller, Search for Security: Saudi Arabian Oil and American Foreign Policy, 1939–1949 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1980), p. 131.

  49E. DeGolyer, ‘Preliminary Report of the Technical Oil Mission to the Middle East’, Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 28 (1944), 919–23.

  50‘Summary of Report on Near Eastern Oil’, 3 February 1943, in Yergin, The Prize, p. 375.

  51Beaverbrook to Churchill, 8 February 1944, cited by K. Young, Churchill and Beaverbrook: A Study in Friendship and Politics (London, 1966), p. 261.

  52Foreign Office memo, February 1944, FO 371/42688.

  53Churchill to Roosevelt, 20 February 1944, FO 371/42688.

  54Halifax to Foreign Office, 20 February 1944, FO 371/42688; Z. Brzezinski, Strategic Vision: America and the Crisis of Global Power (New York, 2012), p. 14.

  55Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (Washington, DC, 1970); Yergin, The Prize, p. 391.

  56Yergin, The Prize, p. 429.

  57W. Louis, The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–51: Arab Nationalism, the United States and Postwar Imperialism (Oxford, 1984), p. 647.

  58Yergin, The Prize, p. 433.

  59de Bellaigue, Patriot of Persia, p. 118. Also see here M. Crinson, ‘Abadan: Planning and Architecture under the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company’, Planning Perspectives 12.3 (1997), 341–59.

  60S. Marsh, ‘Anglo-American Crude Diplomacy: Multinational Oil and the Iranian Oil Crisis, 1951–1953’, Contemporary British History Journal 21.1 (2007), 28; J. Bill and W. Louis, Musaddiq, Iranian Nationalism, and Oil (Austin, TX, 1988), pp. 329–30.