Secrets of the Knights Templar

by S. J. Hodge

  An illuminated manuscript from The History of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Inside the letter C is an illustration of Conrad III, King of Germany, and King Louis VII of France besieging Damascus in 1148.

  The Siege of Ascalon by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem, from an illuminated manuscript by Sébastien Mamerot, Les Passages d’Outremer (Journeys to Outremer).

  The Siege of Ascalon

  During the winter of 1149–50, the young King Baldwin III of Jerusalem asked the Templars to take control of Gaza, a city on a strip of land surrounded by Egypt, Ascalon and the Mediterranean Sea, 78 kilometres (48 miles) south-west of Jerusalem. Baldwin had rebuilt the ruined city of Gaza and intended that the Knights Templar would defend it against continual raids by the Fatimids, who had kept control of Ascalon, a small patch of territory ten miles to the north of Gaza, after the First Crusade. Ascalon was an important base for the Muslims and they had used it for centuries. From there, they attacked pilgrims as they travelled from Jaffa and Nazareth to Jerusalem.

  After the Second Crusade, Conrad III of Germany had attempted to besiege the fortress in Ascalon, but as he had no support from anyone else, he was forced to withdraw. It was not until Baldwin III had rebuilt the city of Gaza, and invited the Templars in to defend it, that he, too, decided to make an assault on Ascalon. At the end of January 1153, the entire army of Jerusalem, with Patriarch Fulcher holding the relic of the True Cross aloft, plus the Templars, Hospitallers and a number of powerful barons, marched towards Ascalon with as many siege towers as they could gather. Situated on the Mediterranean coast, the port of Ascalon was shaped like a basin, protected by the sea on one side and strong, curved man-made walls on the other. The Crusader siege was therefore undertaken both by land and by sea, with the fleet commanded by Gerard Grenier, Lord of Sidon, who strangely often raided both Muslims and Christians at sea. Sidon was one of the Crusader states, having been captured in 1110. In the 13th century, one of Gerard’s descendants sold the land to the Knights Templar, but it was later destroyed by the Mongols. The Mongols, sometimes called the Tartars, were pagans from central Asia who began as nomads, divided into tribes and brutally attacked and conquered several civilizations.

  On its way to Ascalon, the Crusader force was also augmented by a large group of pilgrims who were on their way to Jerusalem at the time. Siege towers were constructed and for five months many clashes between the two sides left things at stalemate. Ascalon was virtually impenetrable and behind its massive walls and gates were twice as many defenders as there were besiegers outside. Within the walls, the inhabitants had food supplies that would potentially last for years. In May, the powerful Egyptian fleet arrived to resupply the city, and while it was there it destroyed Gerard of Sidon’s far smaller fleet. Then in August, a group from within Ascalon tried to burn down one of the Crusader siege towers. The wind blew the fire back against the walls of Ascalon causing a large section to collapse. Written over 25 years later, William of Tyre’s account described Templar knights rushing through the opening in the wall without King Baldwin’s knowledge. The Templar Grand Master, Bernard de Tremelay, stopped others from following, but subsequently he and about 40 of his Templar knights were killed by the larger Egyptian force within. Their bodies were displayed on the ramparts and their heads sent to the caliph in Cairo. This has not been verified, however, and other accounts do not mention it. William of Tyre disliked the Knights Templar, so his report has to be treated with caution, but it is known that Bernard de Tremelay was killed during the fighting.

  By August, eight months after they first set out, the Crusaders were exhausted and it was suggested that they abandon the siege, but King Baldwin was convinced that they were on the verge of victory. Three days later they made another assault and another breach was made in a different part of the wall. Bitter fighting ensued but eventually the city fell to the Crusaders. By the end of August 1153, the fortress was officially surrendered. The Muslim inhabitants were allowed to leave in peace and most fled back to Egypt. Ascalon was turned into a diocese directly under the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the city was added to the County of Jaffa, which was ruled by Baldwin’s brother Almaric. The city’s mosque was reconsecrated as a church. The fall of Ascalon contributed to the downfall of the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt; in 1162, Amalric succeeded his brother as King of Jerusalem and, throughout the 1160s, he led numerous expeditions from Ascalon into Egypt, but he never succeeded in his aim of bringing Egypt under his control.

  Building for defence

  When the disasters of the Second Crusade were reported in the West, the reaction was one of shock and outrage, closely followed by anger over the cost. It was apparent that a more robust and permanent defence of the Holy Land was needed. Knights of the military orders already established there would have to become more secure, better equipped and more prepared to fight and attack on many levels to form a greater defence where it was most needed.

  In the 1130s, the Templars had been made responsible for guarding the region between Cilician Armenia, a principality that was formed by refugees escaping invasions of Armenia by the Seljuk Turks from the 11th to 14th centuries, and the Principality of Antioch. Since then, they had also been building or reinforcing castles across Europe and Outremer. Being an international organization, the Templars could draw on the building practices and best techniques employed by the many nations they were involved with. In particular, they learned quickly from both their friends and adversaries in Outremer and created massive structures that were able to withstand heavy bombardment or siege. The ability of the Templars to learn and apply what they saw around them was one of their major attributes. Templar castles served as protective fortresses as well as living quarters and administrative centres. After the Second Crusade, castle building took on an even greater importance and urgency. More were built strategically across the Crusader states and enhanced by the latest military advances. The Crusader states made up a long narrow strip of the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem, with the Mediterranean coast on one side and mountain ranges on the other. Beyond the mountains, the cities of Aleppo, Homs, Hama and Damascus were controlled by Muslim rulers. So the earliest Templar castles were built during the 1130s in the mountains to guard the passes for Christian travellers.

  The first Templar castles

  Built in the Amanus Mountains, northwest of Aleppo, the first Templar castle was probably Baghras Castle, also known as Gaston Castle. It was originally constructed by the Byzantines during the tenth century but the Templars took it over in about 1131. Built on a rocky peak with steep slopes running away from it on either side, it overlooked the road to Antioch and the south approach to the Belen Pass (also known as the Syrian Gates), through the Amanus Mountains. Other castles soon followed Baghras, including Trapesac (or Darbsak) Castle, which guarded the north approach to the Belen Pass. Then there were Banyas, Calamella, Roche Roussel and Tortosa Castles, all built or in Templar possession by the mid-12th century.

  Situated to the south of Antioch, Tortosa had become part of the County of Tripoli after it was conquered by Raymond of Toulouse in 1099. It was an important town, used as a landing point for pilgrims and also a busy port serving mainly Genoese and Venetian ships. In 1152, Nur ad-Din captured Tortosa, but within months it was regained by the Christians and immediately assigned to Templar protection. They built a large fortress there and raised impregnable walls around the whole town. In the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Templars were given the castle of Latrūn, also called Toron des Chevaliers. After the Second Crusade, the Templars were given the fortress of Gaza. This had been built by King Baldwin III on the main north–south coastal road. The Templars used it as a base for raids against the Muslim-held city of Ascalon and for protecting the southern side of the Kingdom of Jerusalem against Egypt. In the 1160s, they were given the castle of Safed in Galilee, but less than 30 years later, after a bitter siege, it was taken by Saladin. In 1240, through a treaty made with the Muslims, the Templars rega
ined Safed Castle, but in 1266 it finally fell to Baibars (1223–77), a Mamluk slave who became Sultan of Egypt and whose reign marked the start of an age of Mamluk dominance in the Eastern Mediterranean.

  The ruins of the castle of Ponferrada in León, Spain, built by the Knights Templar in the 12th century on the pilgrim route, the Way of St James, to Santiago de Compostela. In 1178, Ferdinand II of León donated the city to the Templars for protecting the pilgrims on their journeys. The name Ponferrada derives from a nearby iron pilgrim bridge built at the end of the 11th century.

  During the castle-building programme, in 1217, the Templars began erecting Atlit or Athlit Castle, also known as the Pilgrims’ Castle, south of Haifa. Building of this castle lasted until 1221. Even before it was completed, Atlit became one of the major Crusader fortresses, where up to 4,000 troops could live (and did during a siege in 1220). There were three freshwater wells within its enclosure, and with a protected harbour on one side, the castle served both as a port and as a guard over the pilgrimage road from Acre to Jerusalem. Additionally, as the castle dominated the coastal route and surrounding countryside, the Templars could draw revenue on it from tolls and rents, which helped to pay for its upkeep and their equipment and food.

  Castle building in Outremer

  During the 11th century, Norman masons built massive stone castles in Europe, replacing former earth and timber defences. Many Normans were involved in both the First and Second Crusades and several remained in the Holy Land to build castles there for the Templars. Because the land in Outremer was so inconsistent, castle design was necessarily varied and often experimental. Building techniques and styles often borrowed from surrounding influences, such as the Byzantine use of small bricks, or Armenian, Byzantine, European or Islamic methods of cutting and shaping stones. Variations in mixtures of cement and mortar also reflected different cultural influences and an understanding of requirements in warm climates. Castle building in the Holy Land developed more rapidly than in the West. For example, the first concentric castles were built in Outremer in the late 1160s, over a century before they appeared in Europe. After the Second Crusade, towers became larger and more closely spaced and castle walls became thicker. The originally Islamic concept of the talus (an additional sloping front on a castle) along the lower parts of walls and towers was adopted. The number of embrasures for archery or observation was increased and various forms of projecting machicolation appeared, to allow arrows to be shot out or missiles to be dropped on to enemies below. These also followed Byzantine and Islamic fortification styles.

  La Couvertoirade; the remains of a village with a castle situated in the valley of River Dourbie near Lodève in France. It was originally a stopping place for pilgrims on the road to Santiago de Compostela and was given to the Knights Templar in 1185 so that they could protect the pilgrims on their way to that shrine.

  Safety and practicality

  By the 1180s, there were approximately 600 Templar knights in Jerusalem, Tripoli and Antioch, and approximately 1,000 sergeants, and these were involved in every battle fought in the area. All their castles were under a Commander in charge of supplies and the sergeants who guarded the gates. The Templar Order was the only organization capable of building these great castles at the time and they were all solid and robust, whether they were vast strongholds or small simple lookout towers. As well as drawing on ideas from local Byzantine and Islamic styles and methods, the Templars also hired expert masons from Europe to assist in their castle-building programme. Pilgrims often worked as labourers in return for their protection. From the second half of the 12th century, most Templar castles were concentrated in the northern part of the Principality of Antioch and in the south of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, where they were used primarily to guard pilgrim routes. Portraying an image of strength and impregnability, they were predominantly used as bases from where Templars could ensure that passing pilgrims had enough food, tents and mules.

  As they spread across Europe, the Templars built castles in other locations as well, mainly in the Iberian Peninsula. But their building programme concentrated more on barns, preceptories and churches. Templar church and domestic architecture features some of the finest of their craftsmanship, and throughout Europe they built approximately 9,000 preceptories, comprising farms, barns, strongholds and other practical buildings. Totally different from either their castles or their churches, Templar barns are usually timber framed and functional. Theodorich, a German monk who went on pilgrimage to the Holy Land in 1172, wrote about the Templar buildings he saw in Jerusalem:

  … on the other side of the palace, that is on the west, the Templars have built a new house, whose height, length and breadth, and all its cellars and refectories, staircase and roof, are far beyond the custom of this land. Indeed its roof is so high that, if I were to mention how high it is, those who listen would hardly believe me. There indeed they have constructed a new palace, just as on the other side they have the old one. There too they have founded on the edge of the outer court a new church of magnificent size and workmanship.

  For these holy men, their churches and other places of worship were possibly the most essential aspects of the Templars’ daily existence. Large castles were built to contain a chapel, refectory, halls, stables, dormitories and other chambers and storerooms that could be used to store enough provisions in the event of lengthy sieges. If the castles were not large enough for a separate chapel, the Templars used part of the inner baileys as their chapels. Further churches were built by them across Europe and Outremer, as this was one of the unique privileges granted to them by Pope Innocent II in 1139 – other religious orders were not allowed to build their own churches. As a result, within the first century of their existence, the Templars had built approximately 150 churches and cathedrals. These churches reflect the Order’s collective, humble devotion to their religion. In the Holy Land in particular, they seem to have felt their religious responsibilities keenly.

  Gothic architecture

  Within a few years of the Templars’ formation, a new style of church architecture appeared in Western Europe. Becoming known later as Gothic, the first examples were built in France in around 1140 and the style flourished during the crusading period. Characterized by large towers and spires that soared high into the sky, Gothic churches were physical examples of an improved knowledge of engineering and a reverence for God. It has been speculated that the Templars were involved in the invention of the Gothic style of architecture. The basis for this theory included the fact that the development of the style began in Europe just after the Order was established at the Council of Troyes and it became more widespread when the Templars were becoming extremely successful, and expanding in many different directions, including becoming proficient in building for several different purposes. Another reason for the theory is that many elements of the style seem to emerge from Byzantine and Islamic traditions, which would not have been familiar to established European architects and masons, but were accessible to the Templars in the East. Yet there are other facts that counteract these claims, including: if they invented it, why did the Templars not create Gothic style churches for themselves?

  The overall appearance of Gothic architecture was unique and served to glorify both the Catholic faith and, it is claimed, the French royal family – the Capetian dynasty. Gothic architecture was tall, light and airy, with high vaulted ceilings in web-like designs that balanced on soaring stone pillars. The Byzantine and Islamic methods that feature in Gothic churches in turn developed from earlier Egyptian techniques, such as making use of solid walls and pillars rather than hollowing them out as had been done previously. In this way, they could support greater weights. Other Eastern methods included precision cutting of stone, so that everything slotted together and exactly matched other stone blocks. These were just two of the new building innovations that enabled the new churches to be far larger than previously built European churches. Soon the use of buttresses and flying buttresses allowed the sto
nework to be supported from the outside, so huge, heavy glass windows could be fitted into the solid walls, and this made Gothic churches vast, high-ceilinged places, that filled with sparkling jewel colours as the daylight shone through the stained-glass windows. Gothic architects were creating the loftiest interior spaces the world had ever seen, while outside, spires soared high into the sky as if reaching up to heaven and God. The technical innovations of the style enabled buildings to be constructed on a skeleton framework, which enormously increased architects’ flexibility.

  Gothic architecture in the abbey on Mont Saint-Michel in Normandy, which was built over five centuries. The style became widespread at the time of the Templars’ expansion, and many aspects seemed to derive from eastern traditions, but their involvement was not apparent.

  The key features of Gothic architecture that also reflected Eastern building practice included the pointed arch that originated in the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) Empires and subsequently became a distinctive feature of Islamic architecture. Another was rib vaulting that originally appeared in ancient Egypt as barrel vaulting, then in ancient Rome as two barrel vaults intersected at right angles to form groin vaults, which were also used in Byzantine and Islamic buildings. Gothic builders modified the concept into the rib vault, which was a skeleton of pointed arches, or ribs, on which masonry was laid. Buttresses used in Gothic architecture were also previously used in Byzantine, Sassanid and Islamic architecture, and window tracery also appeared originally in Byzantine buildings. But the notion that the Knights Templar were the instigators of the Gothic style seems improbable when considered in the context of their structure. Bernard of Clairvaux, who was so important in their formation, advocated greater simplicity and the eradication of embellishment and expense in art and architecture. Gothic architecture was far too ornate and decorative for his tastes and the Templars adhered strongly to Bernard’s other beliefs, so it would have been singular for them to have contradicted him in this area. Many of the characteristics of Gothic architecture had been used in the architecture of the Romanesque period, which began in Europe long before the Order of the Knights Templar was formed. Certain elements, such as pointed arches and large stained-glass windows, did not appear in Romanesque churches, however, but pointed arches and ribbed vaults did appear in Durham Cathedral in England, which was begun in 1093, before the foundation of the Knights Templar, or even the First Crusade.