The Ocean of Life
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5. BBC News: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7641537.stm; accessed May 20, 2011.
6. Frantzis, A., “Does Acoustic Testing Strand Whales?” Nature 329 (1998): 29.
7. Not all military sonars produce sound within the hearing range of whales. Some use lower frequencies that may be perfectly safe. Cook, M. L. H., et al., “Beaked Whale Auditory Evoked Potential Hearing Measurements,” Journal of Comparative Physiology A 192 (2006): 489–95.
8. Fernández, A., et al., “‘Gas and Fat Embolic Syndrome’ Involving a Mass Stranding of Beaked Whales (Family Ziphiidae) Exposed to Anthropogenic Sonar Signals,” Veterinary Pathology 42 (2005): 446l: doi: 10.1354/vp.42-4-446.
9. Tyack, P. L., et al., “Extreme Diving of Beaked Whales,” Journal of Experimental Biology 209 (2006): 4238–53.
10. Nosengo, N., “The Neutrino and the Whale,” Nature 462 (2009): 560–61.
11. Frankel, A. S., and C. W. Clark, “ATOC and Other Factors Affecting the Distribution and Abundance of Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) off the North Shore of Kauai,” Marine Mammal Science 18 (2002): 644–62.
12. Kroll, D. A., et al., “Only Male Fin Whales Sing Loud Songs,” Nature 417 (2002): 809.
13. Researchers played dolphins the whistle sounds of others that had been synthesized electronically to ensure dolphins responded to the call rather than the sound of the voice of the caller. They still recognized one another as individuals. Janik, V. N., et al., “Signature Whistle Shape Conveys Identity Information to Bottlenose Dolphins,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (2006): 8293–97.
14. Buckstaff, K. C., “Effects of Watercraft Noise on the Acoustic Behaviour of Bottlenose Dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, in Sarasota Bay, Florida,” Marine Mammal Science 20 (2004): 709–25.
15. Wysocki, L. E., et al., “Ship Noise and Cortisol Secretion in European Freshwater Fishes,” Biological Conservation 128 (2006): 501–8.
16. Papoutsoglou, S.E. et al., “Effect of Mozart’s Music (Romanze-Andante of ‘Eine Kleine Nacht Musik,’ sol major, K525) Stimulus on Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) Physiology under Different Light Conditions,” Aquacultural Engineering 36 (2007): 61–72.
17. Fay, R., “Soundscapes and the Sense of Hearing of Fishes,” Integrative Zoology 4 (2009): 26–32.
18. Simpson, S. D., et al., “Homeward Sound,” Science 308 (2005): 221.
19. Vermeij, M. J. A., et al., “Coral Larvae Move Towards Reef Sounds,” PLoS One 5 (2010): e10660.
20. Lohse, D., B. Schmitz, and M. Versluis, “Snapping Shrimp Make Flashing Bubbles,” Nature 413 (2001): 477–78.
21. Rowell, T., et al., “Use of Passive Acoustics to map Grouper Spawning Aggregations, with Emphasis on Red Hind, Epinephelus guttatus, off Western Puerto Rico”; presentation given at Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute meeting, Puerto Rico, 2010; www.gcfi.org/Conferences/63rd/GCFIBook_Of_AbstractsEngPDF.pdf; accessed May 22, 2011.
22. Vascocelos, R. O., et al., “Effects of Ship Noise on the Detectability of Communication Signals in the Lusitanian Toadfish,” Journal of Experimental Biology 210 (2007): 2104–12.
23. Bass, A. H., et al., “Evolutionary Origins for Social Vocalization in a Vertebrate Hindbrain-Spinal Compartment,” Science 321 (2008): 417–21.
24. Anderson, A., “Humming Fish Disturb the Peace,” New Scientist, September 12, 1985, p. 64–65.
25. Parks, S. E., et al., “Individual Right Whales Call Louder in Increased Environmental Noise,” Biology Letters (2010): doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0451; see also article in Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution magazine, Oceanus: www.whoi.edu/oceanus/viewArticle.do?id=84868, accessed February 14, 2011.
26. Foote, A. D., et al., “Whale-Call Response to Masking Boat Noise,” Nature 428 (2004): 910.
27. Slabbekoorn, H., and A. Den Boer-Visser, “Cities Change the Song of Birds,” Current Biology 16 (2006): 2326–31.
28. Aguilar Soto, N. A., et al., “Does Intense Ship Noise Disrupt Foraging in Deep-Diving Cuvier’s Beaked Whales (Ziphius cavirostris)?” Marine Mammal Science 22 (2006): 690–99.
29. Mooney, T. A., et al., “Sonar-Induced Temporary Hearing Loss in Dolphins,” Biology Letters 5 (2009): 565–67.
30. A short-fin pilot whale also had profound hearing loss, while twelve animals from other species had normal hearing. Mann, D., et al., “Hearing Loss in Stranded Odontocete Dolphins and Whales.” PLoS ONE 5 (2010): e13824: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0013824.
31. Frisk, G. V., “Noiseonomics.”
Chapter 12: Aliens, Invaders, and the Homogenization of Life
1. Coates, A. G., et al., “Closure of the Isthmus of Panama: The Near-Shore Marine Record of Costa Rica and Western Panama,” Geological Society of America Bulletin 104 (1992): 814–28.
2. Brawley, S. H., et al., “Historical Invasions of the Intertidal Zone of Atlantic North America Associated with Distinctive Patterns of Trade and Emigration,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009): 8239–44.
3. There is a widely recounted tale, which turns out to be apocryphal, that lionfish were released to the Atlantic during Hurricane Andrew, in 1992, when storm surge overwhelmed Biscayne Bay aquarium. The source of the story has since retracted it. See Science magazine: http://news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider/2010/04/mystery-of-the-lionfish-dont-bla.html#more; accessed November 17, 2011.
4. Albins, M. A., and M. A. Hixon, “Worst Case Scenario: Potential Long-Term Effects of Invasive Predatory Lionfish (Pterois volitans) on Atlantic and Caribbean Coral-Reef Communities,” Environmental Biology of Fishes (2011): doi 10.1007/s10641-011-9795-1.
5. Mark Hixon was quoted in The Times (London), October 20, 2008; www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article4974396.ece; accessed May 22, 2011.
6. Bax, N., et al., “Marine Invasive Alien Species: A Threat to Global Biodiversity,” Marine Policy 27 (2003): 313–23.
7. Carlton, J. T., “The Scale and Ecological Consequences of Biological Invasions in the World’s Oceans,” in Sandlund, O. T. et al., eds. Invasive Species and Biodiversity Management (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999), pp. 195–212.
8. Shiganova, T. A., and Y. V. Bulgakova, “Effects of Gelatinous Plankton on Black Sea and Sea of Azov Fish and Their Food Resources,” ICES Journal of Marine Science 57 (2000): 641–48: doi:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0736.
9. Saltonstall, K., “Cryptic Invasion By A Non-Native Genotype of Phragmites australis into North America,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (2002): 2445–49.
10. Cohen, A. N., and J. T. Carlton, “Accelerating Invasion Rate in a Highly Invaded Estuary,” Science 279 (1998): 555–58.
11. Personal communication from James Carlton, Williams College, Mystic, CT, USA.
12. Ray, G. L., “Invasive Marine and Estuarine Animals of California,” ERDC/TN ANSRP-05-2, August 2005. Available from: http://el.erdc.usace.army.mil/elpubs/pdf/ansrp05-2.pdf; accessed January 1, 2012.
13. Meinesz, A., Killer Algae (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999).
14. Musée Océanographique de Monaco.
15. Meinesz, A., Killer Algae.
16. Carlton, J. T., and L. Eldredge, “Marine Bioinvasions of Hawai’i: The Introduced and Cryptogenic Marine and Estuarine Animals and Plants of the Hawaiian Archipelago,” Bishop Museum Bulletin of Cultural and Environmental Studies 4 (2009): 1–202.
17. Tan, K. S., and B. Morton, “The Invasive Caribbean Bivalve Mytilopsis sallei (Dreissenidae) Introduced to Singapore and Johor Bahru, Malaysia,” The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 54 (2006): 429–34.
18. Reid, P. C., et al., “A Biological Consequence of Reducing Arctic Ice Cover: Arrival of the Pacific Diatom Neodenticula seminae in the North Atlantic for the First Time in 800 000 Years,” Global Change Biology 13 (2007): 1910–21.
19. Scheinin, A. P., et al., “Gray Whale (Eschrichtius robustus) in the Mediterranean Sea: Anomalous Event or Early Sign of Climate-Driven Distribution Change?” Marine Biodiversity Records (2011): doi:10.10
17/S1755267211000042.
20. Lewis, P. N., et al., “Assisted Passage or Passive Drift: A Comparison of Alternative Transport Mechanisms for Non-indigenous Coastal Species into the Southern Ocean,” Antarctic Science 17 (2005): 183–91.
21. Ricciardi, A., et al., “Should Biological Invasions Be Managed as Natural Disasters?” BioScience 61 (2011): 312–17.
22. Galil, B. S., “Loss or Gain? Invasive Aliens and Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea,” Marine Pollution Bulletin 55 (200): 314–22.
23. One experimental test of this idea proved the case at a very small scale: Stachowicz, J. J., et al., “Species Diversity and Invasion Resistance in a Marine Ecosystem,” Science 286 (1999): 1577–79.
24. Some scientists, like Williams College’s James Carlton, think this conclusion has more to do with our ignorance of marine life than a real absence of extinctions.
25. Myers, J. H., et al., “Eradication Revisited: Dealing with Exotic Species,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 15 (2000): 316–20.
26. Ecospeed, for example. Hydrex Underwater Technology: www.hydrex.be/ecospeed_hull_coating_system; accessed January 2, 2012.
Chapter 13: Pestilence and Plague
1. Nugues, M. M., and I. Nagelkerken, “Status of Aspergillosis and Sea Fan Populations in Curaçao Ten Years after the 1995 Caribbean Epizootic,” Revista de Biologia Tropical 54 (2006): 153–60.
2. Darwin, C., A Naturalist’s Voyage (London: John Murray, 1886).
3. Garrison, V. H., et al., “African and Asian Dust: From Desert Soils to Coral Reefs,” Bioscience 53 (2003): 469–80. Others, like the University of North Carolina’s John Bruno, doubt the dust explanation, pointing out that African dust has been falling for thousands of years without obvious harm. On the other hand, it may only have been recently that populations of animals like sea fans became sufficiently stressed to be susceptible to epidemics.
4. Patterson Sutherland, K., et al., “Human Sewage Identified as Likely Source of White Pox Disease of the Threatened Caribbean Elkhorn Coral, Acropora palmata,” Environmental Microbiology 12 (2010): 122–31.
5. Gardner, T. A., et al., “Long-term Region-wide Declines in Caribbean Corals,” Science 301 (2003): 958–60.
6. Arthur, K., et al., “The Exposure of Green Turtles (Chelonia mydas) to Tumour Promoting Compounds Produced by the Cyanobacterium Lyngbya majuscula and Their Potential Role in the Aetiology of Fibropapillomatosis,” Harmful Algae 7 (2008): 114–25.
7. Ward, J. R., and K. D. Lafferty, “The Elusive Baseline of Marine Disease: Are Diseases in Ocean Ecosystems Increasing?” PLoS Biology 2 (2004): 542–47.
8. Lafferty, K. D., et al., “Reef Fishes Have Higher Parasite Richness at Unfished Palmyra Atoll Compared to Fished Kiritimati Island,” EcoHealth 5 (2008): 338–45.
9. Thornton, Russell, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492 (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990), pp. 26–32.
10. Lessios, H., “Mass Mortality of Diadema antillarum in the Caribbean: What Have We Learned?” Annual Reviews in Ecology and Systematics 19 (1988): 371–93.
11. Gulland, F. M. D., and A. J. Hall, “Is Marine Mammal Health Deteriorating? Trends in Global Reporting of Marine Mammal Disease,” EcoHealth 4 (2007): 135–50.
12. Harvell, D., et al., “The Rising Tide of Ocean Diseases: Unsolved Problems and Research Priorities,” Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 2 (2004): 375–82; see also BBC News: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4729810.stm; accessed February 16, 2011.
13. Swart, R. L. de, et al., “Impaired Immunity in Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina) Exposed to Bioaccumulated Environmental Contaminants: Review of a Long-term Feeding Study,” Environmental Health Perspectives 104 (1996): 823–28.
14. Carey, C., “Infectious Disease and Worldwide Declines of Amphibian Populations, with Comments on Emerging Diseases in Coral Reef Organisms and in Humans,” Environmental Health Perspectives 108 (2000): 143–50.
15. Nugues, M. M., “Impact of a Coral Disease Outbreak on Coral Communities in St. Lucia: What and How Much Has Been Lost?” Marine Ecology Progress Series 229 (2002): 61–71.
16. Watling L., and E. A. Norse, “Disturbance of the Seabed by Mobile Fishing Gear: A Comparison to Forest Clearcutting,” Conservation Biology 12 (1998): 1180–97.
17. Ford, S. E., “Range Extension by the Oyster Parasite Perkinsus marinus into the Northeastern United States: Response to Climate Change?” Journal of Shellfish Research 15 (1996): 45–56.
18. Sokolow, S., “Effects of a Changing Climate on the Dynamics of Coral Infectious Disease: A Review of the Evidence,” Diseases of Aquatic Organisms 87 (2009): 5–18.
19. Ibid. Extreme warmth of 31°C–35oC seems to damp down growth of pathogens.
20. Webster, N. S., “Sponge Disease: A Global Threat?” Environmental Microbiology 9 (2007): 1363–75.
21. Bruno, J. F., et al., “Nutrient Enrichment Can Increase the Severity of Coral Diseases,” Ecology Letters 6 (2003): 1056–61.
22. Wood, C. L., et al., “Fishing out Marine Parasites? Impacts of Fishing on Rates of Parasitism in the Ocean,” Ecology Letters 13 (2010): 761–75.
23. Raymundo, L. J., et al., “Functionally Diverse Reef-Fish Communities Ameliorate Coral Disease,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 106 (2009): 17067–70. Lafferty, K. D., “Fishing for Lobsters Indirectly Increases Epidemics in Sea Urchins,” Ecological Applications 14 (2004): 1566–73.
Chapter 14: Mare Incognitum
1. Cohen, J. E., “Human Population: The Next Half Century,” Science 302 (2003): 1172–75.
2. UN Food and Agriculture Organization, “State of Fisheries and Aquaculture” (Rome: FAO, 1998).
3. Clarke, S., “Shark Product Trade in Hong Kong and Mainland China and Implementation of Cites Shark Listings,” TRAFFIC East Asia, Hong Kong, China (2004).
4. Montgomery, D. R., Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007).
5. Richardson, A. J., et al., “The Jellyfish Joyride: Causes, Consequences and Management Responses to a More Gelatinous Future,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 24 (2009): 312–22.
6. Arai, M. N., “Predation on Pelagic Coelenterates: A Review,” Proceedings of the Marine Biological Association of the UK 85 (2005): 523–36.
7. Jackson, J. B. C., “Ecological Extinction and Evolution in the Brave New Ocean,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 (2008): 11458–65.
8. Boyce, D. G., et al., “Global Phytoplankton Decline over the Past Century,” Nature 466 (2010): 591–96. The 40 percent decline in phytoplankton productivity since 1950 claimed in this study has been challenged as an artifact of differences in sampling methods over time. The authors have rejected this criticism, although it seems well founded. This is an area where more research is needed for clarity to emerge. See also Stramma, L., et al., “Expanding Oxygen-Minimum Zones in the Tropical Oceans,” Science 320 (2008): 655–58.
9. Roopnarine, P., et al., “The Whale Pump: Marine Mammals Enhance Primary Productivity in a Coastal Basin,” PLoS ONE (2010); e13255 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013255; http://harvardmagazine.com/2011/05/why-whales; accessed May 23, 2011.
10. Iglesias-Rodriguez, M. D., et al., “Phytoplankton Calcification in a High CO2 World,” Science 320 (2008): 336–40.
11. Riebesell, U., et al., “Reduced Calcification of Marine Plankton in Response to Increased Atmospheric CO2,” Nature 407 (2000): 364–67.
12. Moy, A. D., et al., “Reduced Calcification in Modern Southern Ocean Planktonic Foraminifera,” Nature Geoscience doi: 10.1038/NGEO460 (2009).
13. Kolbert, E., “Acid Oceans,” National Geographic 219 (April 2011): 100–21.
14. Muir, J., My First Summer in the Sierra (Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1911).
15. Ward, P., and R. M. Myers, “Shifts in Open Ocean Fish Communities Coinciding with the Commencement of Commercial Fishing,” Ecology 86 (2005): 835–47.
16. Myers, R. A., et al., “Cascading Ef
fects of the Loss of Apex Predatory Sharks from a Coastal Ocean,” Science 315 (2007): 1846–50.
17. Airoldi, L., et al., “The Gray Zone: Relationships Between Habitat Loss and Marine Biodiversity and Their Implications for Conservation,” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 366 (2008): 8–15.
18. Nugues, M. M., “Algal Contact as a Trigger for Coral Disease,” Ecology Letters 7 (2004): 919–23.
19. McIntyre, P. B., et al. “Fish Extinctions Alter Nutrient Recycling in Tropical Freshwaters.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): 4461–66; Schindler, D. E., “Fish Extinctions and Ecosystem Functioning in Tropical Ecosystems,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (2007): 5707–8.
Chapter 15: Ecosystems at Your Service
1. Seaman, O., “The Uses of the Ocean,” H. Watson, ed., Ode to the Sea: Poems to Celebrate Britain’s Maritime History (London: National Trust Books, 2011): pp 162–63.
2. Bellamy, J. C., The Housekeeper’s Guide to the Fish-market for Each Month of the Year, and an Account of the Fish and Fisheries of Devon and Cornwall (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1843).
3. Shephard, S., et al., “Benthivorous Fish May Go Hungry on Trawled Seabed,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B (2011); doi: 10.1098/rspb.2010.2713.
4. Thurstan, R. H., et al., “Effects of 118 Years of Industrial Fishing on UK Bottom Trawl Fisheries,” Nature Communications 1 (2010):15, doi: 10.1038/ncomms1013.
5. Department of Health, “The Burden of Asthma in Washington State: 2008 Update,” DOH Publication 345-240; Rev 05/2009.
6. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis (Washington DC: Island Press, 2005).
7. Wackernagel, M., “Tracking the Ecological Overshoot of the Human Economy,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 99 (2002): 9266–71.