The Collected Poetry of Nikki Giovanni
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L. 45: “le roi”: LeRoi Jones, now Amiri Baraka (1934–). See note to “Poem (No Name No. 3),”.
L. 46: “rap”: H. Rap Brown, now Jamil Abdullah Al-Amin (1943–). See note to “Detroit Conference of Unity and Art,”.
L. 47: “pollard, thompson and cooper”: Three SNCC workers on their way to California who were killed in Texas.
L. 48: “king”: Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–68).
L. 49: “kennedy”: Robert F. Kennedy (1925–68).
“From a Logical Point of View”
L. 12: “dream deferred”: See Langston Hughes’s poem “Harlem,” the famous first line of which is “What happens to a dream deferred?”
“Dreams”
L. 6: “raelet”: The Raelettes (originally known as the Cookies) were a female backup trio for the singer Ray Charles.
L. 7: “dr o wn d in my youn tears”: “Drown in My Own Tears” was one of Ray Charles’s big hits.
L. 8: “tal kin bout”: Another Ray Charles hit, “Talking About You.”
L. 9: “marjorie hendricks”: Marjorie Hendricks was the gritty-voiced lead singer of the Raelettes.
L. 12: “baaaaaby nightandday”: Words from another big Ray Charles hit, “The Night Time Is the Right Time.”
L. 19: “sweet inspiration”: The Sweet Inspirations were back ground singers for Atlantic Records. The lead singer was Cissy Houston (mother of Whitney); the others were Estelle Brown, Sylvia Shemwell, and Myrna Smith. The Sweet Inspirations, who sang background vocals for many of Aretha Franklin’s hits, sang three-part harmony, unlike the Raelettes, who sang the blues.
“Revolutionary Music”
This poem, which is both about and constructed from the names of musical groups, themes, and songs, asserts the political implications of much popular music recorded by Black musicians during the 1960s. It was cited by Stephen Henderson as an excellent example of “the use of tonal memory as poetic structure” in Black poetry. By “tonal memory,” he means “the practice…of forcing the reader to incorporate into the structure of the poem his memory of a specific song, or passage of a song, or even of a specific delivery technique. Without this specific memory the poem cannot be properly realized.” See Stephen Henderson, Understanding the New Black Poetry: Black Speech and Black Music as Poetic References (New York: William Morrow, 1973), pp. 53–54.
Ll. 1–2: “sly/and the family stone”: Sly and the Family Stone was an important musical group in the late 1960s; they brought together gospel, rhythm and blues, and rock.
L. 4: “dancing to the music”: “Dance to the Music” was the first major hit by Sly and the Family Stone.
L. 5: “james brown”: James Brown (1933–), the Godfather of Soul, inventor of funk, and quite likely the most important contributor to and influence on soul music.
Ll. 11–14: “although you happy…taking you on”: This line is from “Money Won’t Change You,” a big hit for James Brown that later was covered by Aretha Franklin.
L. 19: “good god! ugh!”: Words from James Brown’s “I Can’t Stand Myself (When You Touch Me).”
L. 21: “i got the feeling baby”: Another James Brown hit, “I’ve Got the Feeling.”
L. 23: “martha and the vandellas dancing in the street”: Martha and the Vandellas, one of the most important girl groups of the 1960s, were a gritty and soulful alternative to their chief rivals, the Supremes. The group originated in Detroit in 1962 and was anchored by Martha Reeves, the lead singer. “Dancin’ in the Streets” was perhaps their biggest hit. In an interview, Giovanni stated that she and other young Black revolutionaries understood the song to be a coded reference to the Detroit riots.
L. 24: “shorty long…at that junction”: Frederick “Shorty” Long, born in Birmingham, Alabama, was a musician and recording artist who signed with Motown in 1963. He cowrote (with Eddie Holland) and performed “Function at the Junction,” which eventually became a classic and which carries a strong political message.
Ll. 26–27: “aretha said they better/think”: Aretha Franklin (1942–), the undisputed “Queen of Soul.” “Think” was a hit single with significant political overtones; it was recorded on the album Aretha Now, released in 1968.
L. 29: “ain’t no way to love you”: “Ain’t No Way,” which was written by Aretha Franklin’s sister, Carolyn, was recorded on the album Lady Soul, released in 1968.
L. 31: “the o’jays”: Taking their name from the radio DJ Eddie O’Jay, the O’Jays had more than fifty hit singles during their forty-year career.
L. 34: “mighty mighty impressions”: The Impressions were a Chicago group led by Curtis Mayfield; the original group also included Jerry Butler, whose lead vocals helped make “For Your Precious Love” a huge hit and launched Butler’s solo career. Among their many hits was the 1968 “We’re a Winner,” one of the earliest R & B celebrations of Black pride.
L. 40: “temptations”: The Temptations, a five-member group, were the most successful of Motown’s male vocal groups.
L. 41: “supremes”: The Supremes, eventually a three-member group, were the most successful of Motown’s female vocal groups.
L. 42: “delfonics”: A male trio, the Delfonics were one of the first groups to exhibit the smooth and soulful style that eventually became known as the “Philly sound.”
L. 43: “miracles”: The Miracles, a male vocal group led by the singer and songwriter Smokey Robinson, helped define the Motown sound.
L. 44: “intruders”: The Intruders were a male vocal group from Philadelphia who signed with Kenny Gamble and Leon Huff’s record company, Philadelphia International Records. They were innovators in the Philly sound.
L. 45: “beatles”: Contrary to the suggestion of these lines, Gio vanni is actually an admirer of the music of the Beatles (witness her poem “This Is Not for John Lennon,”).
L. 45: “animals”: A British male quintet, the Animals were one of the most important of the British R & B groups of the 1960s.
L. 46: “young rascals”: A white, male rock band, the Young Ras cals had a penchant for playing Black soul music, sometimes dubbed “blue-eyed soul.”
L. 49: “sam cooke”: Sam Cooke (1931–64) was a popular and influential singer who emerged in the 1950s as a gospel star and then began recording popular songs, including the megahits “You Send Me” and “Wonderful World.” His influence on soul music as well as on many of its best-known performers cannot be overstated. “A Change Is Gonna Come,” recorded in February 1964, was his last great ballad. Controversy still surrounds his violent death.
“Beautiful Black Men (With compliments and apologies to all not mentioned by name)”
L. 9: “running numbers”: The numbers was a popular illegal gambling game played in Black communities all over the country, similar to (and largely replaced by) state lotteries. A numbers runner (analogous to a bookie) collected and paid off bets made each day.
L. 10: “hogs”: Cadillac automobiles.
L. 11: “walking their dogs”: “Walking the Dog” was a dance popularized by Rufus Thomas, a DJ in Memphis and father of Carla Thomas, who recorded the smash hit “Gee Whiz (Look at His Eyes).”
L. 15: “jerry butler”: The performer and composer Jerry “the Iceman” Butler started his career as a member of the Impressions and subsequently had many hit songs as a soloist.
L.15: “Wilson pickett”: Wilson Pickett was unrivaled in the sheer energy he brought to a number of hits in the 1960s, including “In the Midnight Hour” and “Mustang Sally.”
L. 15: “the impressions”: The Impressions were a Chicago group led by Curtis Mayfield; the original group also included Jerry Butler, whose lead vocals helped make “For Your Precious Love” a huge hit and launched Butler’s solo career.
L. 16: “temptations”: The Temptations, a five-member group, were the most successful of Motown’s male vocal groups.
L. 16: “mighty mighty sly”: Sly and the Family Stone was an important group in the late 1960s; they brought together gos
pel, rhythm and blues, and rock.
L. 20: “new breed men”: New Breed was a store in Harlem in the 1960s.
L. 20: “breed alls”: Overalls made of leather, suede, or velvet, popular in the late 1960s.
“Ugly Honkies, or The Election Game and How to Win It”
The first portion of the poem (lines 1–149) was written on August 8, 1968, and the postelection lines (150–58) were written on November 18.
L. 5: “lyndon”: Lyndon B. Johnson (1908–73), thirty-sixth President of the United States (1963–69).
L. 6: “ike”: Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969), thirty-fourth President of the United States (1953–61).
L. 6: “nixon”: Richard M. Nixon (1913–94), vice president under Eisenhower (1953–61) and thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969–74).
L. 6: “hhh”: Hubert H. Humphrey (1911–78), vice president to Lyndon B. Johnson (1965–69), and the Democratic presidential candidate in 1968. He narrowly lost the 1968 election to Richard Nixon.
L. 6: “wallace”: George C. Wallace (1919–98), governor of Alabama for multiple terms. Wallace was an open segregationist who attempted to block integration of public schools in the 1960s. He was an Independent presidential candidate in the 1968 election, in which he received roughly 13 percent of the vote and carried five Southern states.
L. 6: “maddox”: Lester Maddox (1915–2003), governor of Georgia from 1967 to 1971 and lieutenant governor from 1971 to 1975. Before he entered politics Maddox gained notoriety for closing down his Atlanta restaurant (1964) rather than desegregate it. He unsuccessfully sought the 1968 Democratic presidential nomination.
L. 16: “daley”: Richard J. Daley (1902–76), Democratic mayor of Chicago from 1955 to 1976. Daley brought national attention to himself during the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago by allowing city police to use violence against demonstrators protesting the Vietnam War.
L. 17: “booing senator ribicoff”: At the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Senator Abraham Ribicoff (1910–98) nominated George McGovern (1922–) to be the party’s presidential candidate. In his nomination speech, Ribicoff referred to the “Gestapo tactics on the streets of Chicago,” which provoked a torrent of expletives from Daley. Ribicoff was Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare under President John F. Kennedy and served as a U.S. senator from Connecticut from 1963 to 1981.
L. 21: “julian bond”: Julian Bond (1940–) served four terms in the Georgia House of Representatives (1967–74) and six terms in the Georgia Senate (1975–87). He was first elected to a one-year term in 1965, but the House refused to seat him because of his opposition to the Vietnam War. He was again elected in 1966 to fill his own vacant seat, and the House again voted against seating him. After he won a third election, to a two-year term, in November 1966, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled unanimously that the Georgia House had violated Bond’s rights. Bond had been one of the founding members of SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) and subsequently editor of the protest newspaper The Atlanta Inquirer. He is currently chairman of the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People).
L. 24: “life”: Life magazine. L. 24: “muskie and huskie humphrey”: Edmund Muskie (1914–96) was a U.S. senator from Maine (1958–80). He was the Democratic running mate of Hubert H. Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election.
L. 30: “john and bobby”: John F. Kennedy (1917–63) and Robert F. Kennedy (1925–68), both assassinated.
L. 31: “evers and king”: Medgar Wiley Evers (1925–63) and Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929–68). See note to “Adulthood,”.
L. 32: “caroline”: Caroline Kennedy Schlossberg (1957–), daughter of President John F. Kennedy and Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy. An attorney and writer, she is today president of the Kennedy Library Foundation.
L. 34: “arthur miller”: Arthur A. Miller (1915–), award-winning playwright, author of Death of a Salesman. Miller in fact attended the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago as the delegate from Roxbury.
Ll. 46–47: “and hhh says…wrong”: The 1968 presidential candidate Hubert H. Humphrey refused to denounce Chicago’s Mayor Daley for his deployment of the police during the convention.
L. 55: “politics of ’64”: The 1964 Democratic ticket was President Lyndon B. Johnson and Hubert H. Humphrey. Johnson had succeeded to the presidency after the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963; because he was the sitting president, his election in 1964 was virtually guaranteed, and he enjoyed a landslide victory over Barry M. Goldwater, the Republican candidate.
Ll. 56–62: “the deal…chicago”: Giovanni’s argument is that the leaders of the Republican and Democratic political parties conspired together, agreeing that Johnson would be allowed to win the presidency in 1964 in return for which Nixon would be allowed to win the 1968 election. The 1968 Democratic Convention produced a candidate (Humphrey) less likely to win than, for example, Robert F. Kennedy might have been had he not been assassinated. Like many intellectuals of the 1960s, Giovanni was convinced that national events were orchestrated through the conspiracies of a few powerful figures.
L. 56: “the bird”: An allusion to President Johnson’s wife, “Lady Bird” Johnson.
L. 58: “dallas”: An allusion to Kennedy’s assassination in Dallas, Texas.
L. 60: “los angeles”: An allusion to the assassination of the presidential hopeful Robert F. Kennedy in June 1968, in Los Angeles.
L. 61: “tricky dick”: Nickname for Richard M. Nixon (1913–94), thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969–74), who was forced to resign early in his second term.
L. 62: “chicago”: Site of the 1968 Democratic Convention.
L. 66: “second reconstruction”: Just as the first Reconstruction, following the Civil War, was largely a failure and was followed by increasing violence against Blacks in the South and the erosion of their civil liberties, Giovanni sees the events leading to the election of Nixon as tied to the erosion of gains made during the Civil Rights movement.
L. 77: “gregory or cleaver”: An allusion to the comedian and activist Dick Gregory (1932–), who ran for president in 1968, and to Eldridge Cleaver (1935–98), Black militant minister of information for the Black Panthers; Cleaver was wounded in a Panther shoot-out with police in 1968, jumped bail, and fled to Algeria.
L. 81: “nixon-agnew”: Spiro T. Agnew (1918–96), Richard Nixon’s running mate in the 1968 presidential election. Formerly the governor of Maryland, Agnew served as vice president from 1969 to 1973, when he resigned after being fined for income tax evasion.
Ll. 87–88: “about nigeria…on’”: An allusion to the thirty-month civil war in Nigeria, also known as the Biafran War (1967–70), which cost an estimated one million lives, most of them lost to starvation.
L. 119: “mccarthy”: Eugene J. McCarthy (1916–) was a candidate for the 1968 Democratic presidential nomination. He announced his candidacy in 1967 on an antiwar platform, challenging President Johnson and his policies. McCarthy’s campaign success in New Hampshire (in March 1968) helped draw Robert F. Kennedy into the race and influenced President Johnson’s decision not to seek reelection. McCarthy was a U.S. representative from Minnesota from 1949 to 1959 and a U.S. Senator from 1959 to 1971. After he lost the presidential nomination, he finished his term in the Senate and returned to university teaching.
L. 124: “the assassination of one”: A reference to Robert F. Kennedy.
L. 128: “teddy”: A reference to Senator Edward M. Kennedy (1932–), brother of John F. Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy, and a member of the U.S. Senate since 1962.
L. 150: “wallace”: George C. Wallace, who ran as an Independent in the 1968 presidential election; see note to line 6 on backmatter.
“Cultural Awareness”
L. 17: “maulana”: Maulana Karenga, a Black Nationalist, first instituted the celebration of Kwanza (Swahili for “first fruits”) in 1966.
L. 17: “elijah”: Elijah Muhammad (1897–1975), longti
me leader (1933–75) of the Nation of Islam.
L. 17: “el shabbaz”: Malcolm X, later Al Hajj Malik Al-Shabazz (1925–65), was assassinated on February 21, 1965, at the Audubon Ballroom in New York City.
L. 23: “zig-zag papers”: Used to roll marijuana.
“For Saundra”
L. 21: “no-Dick”: Richard M. Nixon (1913–94), thirty-seventh President of the United States (1969–74).
“For a Poet I Know”
L. 14: “aretha”: Aretha Franklin (1942–), “Queen of Soul.” L. 15: “james brown’s is humphrey”: James Brown (1933–), “Godfather of Soul,” was an important supporter of Hubert H. Humphrey and his presidential campaign.
L. 16: “columbia”: This poem was written in January 1968, when Giovanni was enrolled in Columbia University.
L. 29: “joe goncalves”: Dingane Joe Goncalves, founder of Journal of Black Poetry.
L. 30: “carolyn rodgers”: Carolyn M. Rodgers (1945–), Chicago-born poet associated with the Black Arts movement.
L. 31: “hoyt fuller”: Hoyt Fuller (1927–81), journalist, educator, and editor of Black World (formerly Negro Digest), an important publication during the 1960s and early 1970s.
L. 32: “jet poem”: A reference to Jet magazine.
“For Teresa”
Teresa Elliott was a close friend of Giovanni’s mother.
L. 24: “peppe”: The poet’s nephew, Christopher Black (1959–).
L. 26: “gary”: The poet’s sister, Gary Ann (1940–).
“My Poem”
L. 3: “wrote a poem”: A reference to “The True Import of Present Dialogue, Black vs. Negro,”.
Re: Creation
Re: Creation was published in 1970 by Broadside Press. It is composed of forty-two poems (including the poem of dedication), which were written between May 1969 and July 1970, that is, during the last few months of Giovanni’s pregnancy and the first year of her son’s life.