16. Shind Eiichi, “Bunkatsu sareta rydo.”
17. Aketagawa Tru, “Gysei kytei no teiketsu ‘senryno ronri,’” in Toyoshita Narahiko, ed., Ampo jyaku no ronri: sono seisei to tenkai (Kashiwa Shob, 1999), p. 68, emphasizes Hirohito’s fear of revolution.
18. Suzuki Shizuko, p. 65; on the Niigata tour in general, see Suzuki Masao, pp. 166–69.
19. New York Times, June 18, 1946. At his Washington news conference, Keenan declared that the emperor was not a war criminal so much as “a figurehead and a fraud perpetrated on the Japanese people.” The idea of the imperial institution itself as a “fraud” designed to control an unenlightend people dates back to Basil Hall Chamberlain’s essay of 1912, The Invention of a New Religion.
20. A year earlier, on April 13, 1946, MacArthur had released from prison Gok Kiyoshi, chairman of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, imperial Japan’s main arms-maker, and also Prince Nashimoto. Shortly afterwards, he released four other top business leaders, including Ikeda Seihin, managing director of the Mitsui zaibatsu. See Awaya, “Tokyo saiban ni miru sengo shori,” in Awaya, et al., Sens sekinin, sengo sekinin: Nihon to Doitsu wa d chigau ka, p. 98.
21. Ashida nikki, dai nikan, p. 27.
22. “The Emperor’s Visit to Hiroshima,” Dec. 9, 1947, Departmental Despatch No. 45/1947: From Australian Mission in Japan, Australian Archives, ACT CRS A 1838, Item 477/511.
23. Suzuki Masao, Shwa tenn no gojunk (Tentensha, 1992), pp. 210–11.
24. “The Emperor’s Tour of the Chgoku Region,” Dec. 16, 1947, in National Diet Library, GHQ/SCAP Records Box No. 2195, Microfiche Sheet No. GS (B)–01787.
25. “Memorandum for the Record,” Jan. 12, 1948, by Guy Swopes, Chief of GHQ’s Political Affairs Division. After citing the huge amount of yen spent on Hirohito’s four-day visit to Hiroshima prefecture, he noted that prefectural assemblies, local governments, and private corporations had also appropriated “staggering” amounts of money for large-scale street repair and road improvements in connection with Hirohito’s travels. “The Japanese Emperor has been humanized,” but he still “occupies today essentially the same position he has held for decades.”
26. John W. Treat, “Beheaded Emperors and the Absent Figure in Contemporary Japanese Literature,” in PMLA (Jan. 1994), p. 106.
27. Matsuura Sz, Tenn to masu komi, p. 29; It Satoru, “Nihon koku kenp to tenn,” in Fujiwara Akira, et al., Tenn no Shwa shi, pp. 129–30.
28. Nippon Times, Feb. 25, 1948.
29. Ashida nikki, dai nikan, March 10, 1947, pp. 72–73.
30. According to this view of political history, Japanese development alternated between periods of radical (usually rightist) reform and periods of moderation.
31. On the release of war crimes suspects, see Sebald to Sec. of State, Dec. 24, 1948, in FRUS 1948, vol. 6, The Far East and Australasia, pp. 936–37; and Far Eastern Commission policy decisions of Feb. 24 and March 31, 1949.
32. In the San Francisco Peace Treaty, the U.S. abandoned reparations claims against Japan and obliged the Japanese government to acknowledge only minimal war responsibility in the form of accepting, in Article 11, the verdict of the Tokyo tribunal.
33. On NSC 13/2 and what followed, see Michael Schaller, The American Occupation of Japan: The Origins of the Cold War in Asia (Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 136–39; Nakamura Masanori, “Nihon senry no shodankai: sono kenky shiteki seiri,” in Yui Daizabur, et al., eds., Senry kaikaku no kokusai hikaku: Nihon, Asia, Yroppa (Sanseid, 1994), pp. 94–96.
34. Suzuki Masao, Showa tenn no gojunko, pp. 237-292.
35. Sakamoto, Shch tennsei e no pafmansu, p. 244.
36. Ubuki Satoru, “Hibaku taiken to heiwa und,” in Nakamura Masanori, et al., eds, Sengo Nihon, senry to sengo kaikaku 4, sengo minshushugi (Iwanami Shoten, 1995), p. 117. For discussion, see John W. Treat, Writing Ground Zero: Japanese Literature and the Atomic Bomb (University of Chicago Press, 1995).
37. Shch tennsei e no pafmansu,, pp. 250–52.
38. Ibid., p. 253.
39. Ibid., p. 244.
40. On the Shikoku tour, see Suzuki Masao, pp. 295–324.
41. Yasuda Tsuneo, “Shch tennsei to minsh ishiki: sono shisteki kanren o chshin ni,” pp. 32–33; Yoshimi, “Senryki Nihon no minsh ishiki: sens sekininron o megutte,” pp. 94–99.
42. The Soviet indictment grew out of the findings of the military trial of Kwantung Army commander Gen. Yamada Otoz and eleven other Japanese at Khabarovsk in Dec. 1949. The Soviet report alluded to eighteen volumes of evidence accumulated by the court, including “secret newsreels depicting operations” of the bacteriological warfare Units 731 and 100.
43. FRUS 1950, vol. 6, East Asia and the Pacific, pp. 1195–96.
44. Ibid., pp. 1236–37.
45. Toyoshita, Ampo jyaku no seiritsu (Iwanami Shinsho), pp. 165-86; sono seisei to tenkai, p. 116; John G. Roberts, “The ‘Japan Crowd’ and the Zaibatsu Restoration,” in Japan Interpreter 12, no. 3–4 (Summer 1979), pp. 402–3; Howard B. Schonberger, Aftermath of War: Americans and the Remaking of Japan, 1945–1952 (Kent State University Press, 1989), pp. 151–56. In mid-August 1950, at the request of Commerce Secretary W. Averell Harriman, Packenham and members of Hirohito’s entourage committed Hirohito’s “oral message” to writing. Toyoshita, Ampo jyaku no ronri: sono seisei to tenkai, p. 116, Schonberger, Aftermath of War, p. 156.
46. Toyoshita, Ampo jyaku no seiritsu, p.47; Ronald W. Pruessen, John Foster Dulles: The Road to Power (Free Press, 1982), p. 473.
47. See the unsigned article, “Hirohito o chichi ni motsu otoko,” in Shins 43 (July 1950), pp. 7–17.
48. Matsuura, Tenn to masu komi, p. 29.
49. Mikasa no miya Takahito and M. Lester, “Heiwa wa tab ka,” in Bungei shunj (Dec. 1951), pp. 129–30.
50. David McCullough, Truman (Simon & Schuster, 1992), p. 834. For a more realistic assessment, see Arnold A. Offner, “‘Another Victory’: President Truman, American Foreign Policy, and the Cold War,” in Diplomatic History 23, no. 2 (Spring 1999), pp. 127–55.
51. Cited in James Chace, Acheson: The Secretary of State Who Created the American World (Simon & Schuster, 1998), p. 313.
52. “Memorandum of Conversation,” in John Foster Dulles Papers, “Japan Peace Treaty Files,” reel 7, box 4, p. 604.
53. It Satoru, “Nihon koku kenpto tenn,” p. 141.
54. Kyoto Daigaku Skuru, “‘Kimigayo’ o kakikeshita: Kydai tenn gyk jiken,” in Jinmin bungaku (Jan. 1952), p. 41. Wadatsumi no koe is a collection of posthumously published letters of Japanese students who died in the Asia-Pacific War.
55. Minami Hiroshi, “Tennsei no shinriteki jiban,” in Kuno Osamu, Kamishima Jir, eds., “Tennsei” ronsh (San Ichi Shob, 1974), pp. 194–95; Sakamoto, shch tennsei e no pafmansu, p. 359.
CHAPTER 17
THE QUIET YEARS AND THE LEGACIES OF SHOWA
1. James J. Orr, “The Victim as Hero in Postwar Japan: The Rise of a Mythology of War Victimhood.” Ph.D. dissertation, Department of East Asian Studies, Bucknell University, Lewisberg, Pennsylvania, p. 230–31. Japanese opinion polls show that the majority of the public turned against the Security Treaty only during the 1960 crisis over its renewal. By the early 1970s, a national consensus in support of the treaty had nearly been restored. The percentage favoring the treaty rose from about 41 percent in 1969 to 69 percent in 1984. On the eve of Hirohito’s death, 67 percent supported it.
2. Watanabe Osamu, “Tenn,” Nihonshi daijiten, yonkan, p. 1248; Watanabe Osamu, Nihonkoku kenp “kaisei” shi (Nihon Hyronsha, 1987), pp. 236–37, 245. Early pressure for constitutional revision also came from Vice President Richard Nixon, who visited Japan on Nov. 19, 1953, and declared that the war-renouncing constitition was “a mistake.”
3. Asahi shinbun, Jan. 6, 1999. The document (“Gist of What I Heard From Grand Chamberlain Inada on April 24, 1968, Concerning the Problem of Abdication”) was discovered in papers attached to the unpublished diary of former Grand Chamberlain Tokugawa Yoshihiro. Twenty-three years a
fter the surrender, Hirohito had conveniently blocked out three occasions—mid-August 1945, right after the Tokyo trial in 1948, and at the end of the occupation in 1952—when he had indeed contemplated stepping down. In Dec. 1945, Tokugawa Narihiro communicated Hirohito’s intention to abdicate to George Atcheson, Jr., the State Department’s political adviser to MacArthur [POLAD]. See It Satoru, ed., Sei, kan, shikisha kataru sengo ks (Azuma Shuppan Kabushiki Kaisha, 1995), p. 157.
4. Shimizu Ikutar, “Senryka no tennsei,” in Shis 348 (June l953), pp. 640–41.
5. Takushi Ohno, War Reparations and Peace Settlement: Philippines-Japan Relations 1945–1956 (Manila: Solidaridad Publishing House, 1986), p. ix. Although mainland China sustained the greatest loss of life and property from Japanese aggression, the Kuomintang received only trifling reparations down to mid–1949; the CCP received nothing. In negotiations among the Allied powers prior to the San Francisco Peace Conference, Taiwan was forced to accept the U.S. position waiving claims against Japan. Seven hours before signing the peace treaty, Chiang Kai-shek also approved a “Normalization Treaty” with Japan that, at Tokyo’s insistence, omitted reference to any Japanese obligation to pay war reparations, even though it was the wish of nearly all Kuomintang officials, not to mention the Taiwanese people, that Japan pay for the damage it had caused. To this day the complicated issue of reparations payments to China remains unsettled. See In En-gun, “Nihon no sengo shori: Nitch, Nittai kankei o chshin ni,” Nenp Nihon gendaishi, No. 5 (1999), pp. 85–116; Nishikawa Hiroshi, “Sengo Ajia keizai to Nihon no baish mondai,” in ibid., pp. 11–15.
6. By 1959 their number had declined to 58,000; in 1990 there were still 47,770 American troops on Japanese soil. See Muroyama Yoshimasa, Nichi-Bei anpo taisei, j (Yhikaku, 1992), p. 243; Ara Takashi, “Saigunbi to zai-Nichi Beigun,” in Iwanami kza: Nihon tsshi, dai nijukkan: gendai 1 (Iwanami Shoten, 1995), p. 169.
7. Yoshida, Nihonjin no senskan, p. 82.
8. Yoshioka Yoshinori, “Sengo Nihon seij to A-ky senpan,” in Bunka hyron 372 (Jan. l992), p. 114. Shigemitsu, released on parole in late l950, went on to become president of the Progressive Party, vice president of the LDP, vice prime minister and foreign minister in the Hatoyama Ichir cabinet (Dec. l954 to Dec. l956). Kaya, paroled in 1955, won election to the Diet five times, starting in 1958, and entered the Ikeda Hayato cabinet in 1960, rising to the post of justice minister in 1963.
9. Yoshida, Nihonjin no senskan, p. 17; Yoshida, “Sens no kioku,” in Iwanami koza, sekaishi 25: sens to heiwa, mirai e no messeeji (Iwanami Shoten, 1997), p. 99.
10. Tanaka Nobumasa, Sens no kioku: sono inpei no kz, kokuritsu sens memoriaru o tshite (Ryokuf Shuppan, 1997), p. 60.
11. Ibid., p. 61.
12. Yoshida Yutaka, lecture, Waseda University, Tokyo, Dec. 20, 1997.
13. Watanabe Osamu, “Nihon koku kenpunyoshi josetsu,” in Higuchi Yichi, ed., Kza: kenpgaku 1 (Nihon Hyronsha, 1995), pp. 136–37.
14. Watanabe Osamu, Sengo seijishi no naka no tennsei (Aoki Shoten, 1990), p. 199.
15. Banno Junji, “Introduction: The Historical Origins of Companyism: From Westernization to Indigenization,” in Banno Junji, ed., The Political Economy of Japanese Society, vol. 1, The State or the Market? (Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 1.
16. Shigemitsu Mamoru, Zoku Shigemitsu Mamoru shuki (Ch Kronsha, 1988), p. 732; Watanabe, Sengo seijishi no naka no tennsei, p. 239.
17. Kasahara Tokushi, Nankin jiken to sank sakusen: mirai ni ikasu sens no kioku (tsuki Shoten, 1999), pp. 81–82.
18. Yoshida, “Sens no kioku,” in Iwanami kza, sekai rekishi 25, p. 105; Nihon Gy Renmei, Nihon gy renmei jnenshi (privately published, 1967), pp. 157–58; Nakajima Michio, “Sens to Nihonjin,” in Iwanami kza: Nihon tsshi dai nijukkan, gendai 1 (Iwanami Shoten, 1995), p. 234.
19. Yoshida, “Sens no kioku,” p. 108.
20. Nakamura Masanori, The Japanese Monarchy: Ambassador Joseph Grew and the Making of the ‘Symbol Emperor System,’ 1931–1991 (M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1992), p. 124.
21. Yasuda Tsuneo, “Shch tennsei to minsh ishiki: sono shisteki kanren o chshin ni,” in Rekishigaku kenky 621 (July 1991), p. 36.
22. Ashizu Uzuhiko, a right-wing spokesman for the forces of Shintoism, wrote sarcastically at the time of the marriage that it “was conducted before the Place of Awe because Shda Michiko was a good student of a Catholic school. If the Shda family had not been Catholic, the government would not have taken such a bold step to recover the traditions of the imperial house.” Ashizu Uzuhiko, “Ktaishi denka goseikon no hamon,” in Miyabe to haken (Jinja Shinpsha kan, 1980), p. 165, cited in Watanabe Osamu, “Sengo seiji ni okeru tenn riy no rekishi to gendankai” (unpublished).
23. Tsurumi, Nakagawa, Tenn no hyakuwa, ge, p. 477.
24. Watanabe, “Sengo seiji ni okeru tenn riy no rekishi to gendankai,” p. 30.
25. Kawahara Toshiaki, Tennke no gojnen, pp. 172–75; Takeda Taijun, “Yume to genjitsu,” in Gunz (Feb. 1961), pp. 192–94; John W. Treat, “Beheaded Emperors and the Absent Figure in Contemporary Japanese Literature,” in PMLA (Jan. 1994).
26. Fukazawa Shichir, “Fry mutan,” Ch kron (Dec. 1960), p. 333.
27. Ibid., p. 336.
28. Treat, “Beheaded Emperors and the Absent Figure in Contemporary Japanese Fiction,” p. 111.
29. Matsuura, Tenn to masu komi, pp. 110–11.
30. Kunegi Toshihiro, “Gunkokushugi no fukkatsu to tenn,” in Fujiwara Akira, et al., Tenn no Shwashi (Shin Nihon Shinsho, 1984), p. 161.
31. Nakamura, The Japanese Monarchy, pp. 132–33.
32. Yoshida, Nihonjin no senskan, p. 110.
33. Kunegi, “Gunkokushugi no fukkatsu to tenn,” p. 183.
34. Watanabe, Nihon to wa doiu kuni ka, doko e mukatte iku no ka: ‘kaikaku’ no jidai, Nihon no kz bunseki, p. 287.
35. Watanabe, “The Weakness of the Contemporary Japanese state,” in Banno, ed., The Political Economy of Japanese Society, Vol. 1, pp. 120–24.
36. Yasumaru , Kindai tennz no keisei, pp. 291–92.
37. Sat Eisaku, Sat Eisaku nikki, dai nikan (Asahi Shinbunsha, 1998), p. 211.
38. On August 6, 1966, Sat wrote that Hirohito had “scolded” him “for letting the press write so much about the appointments to the Supreme Court. I am truly struck with awe. I also apologised to him for the Tanaka Shji incident.” Tanaka, a LDP Diet member, had used his position on the Lower House Audit Committee to extort millions of yen in a land deal. Two months later Sat again apologized to Hirohito for the misconduct of two other ministers of state. See Sat Eisaku nikki, dai nikan, pp. 469, 502.
39. ISN, dai yonkan (Asahi Shinbunsha, 1991), pp. 359, 407.
40. Yoshida, Nihonjin no senskan, p. 138.
41. Iwami Takao, “Shinpen: sengo seiji l5, ‘Haribote ni naraneba’—‘Masuhara jiken’ de gokans morasu,” in Mainichi shinbun, July 14, 1991; cited in Bix, “The Shwa Emperor’s ‘Monologue’…” in Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol. 18, No. 2 (Summer 1992), pp. 362–363.
42. Iwami Takao, Heika no goshitsumon: Shwa tenn to sengo seiji (Mainichi Shinbunsha, 1992), pp. 85–88; Iwai Tadakuma, “Tennsei no gojnen,” in Ritsumeikan Daigaku Jinbun Kagaku Kenkyjo, ed., Sengo gojnen o d miru ka, ge: nij isseiki e no tenb no tame ni (Jinbun Shoin, 1998), p. 254; Nakamura, The Japanese Monarchy, p. 139.
43. Yoshida, Nihonjin no senskan, p. 140.
44. Asahi shinbun, Sept. 22, 1973.
45. Ibid., Sept. 23, 1975; Matsuura, Tenn to masukomi, p. 242 ff.
46. Asahi shinbun, Sept. 23, 1975.
47. Time [intl. ed.], Oct. 20, 1975, pp. 14–15; Newsweek, Oct. 20, 1975, p. 25.
48. Nakamura, The Japanese Monarchy, p. 140.
49. Yoshida, Nihonjin no senskan, p. 163.
50. ISN, dai gokan, pp. 208, 210–213.
51. Kase Hideaki, “Takamatsu no miya kaku katariki: sens makki, Miya wa wahei e no ugoki o sasaeru shuch no ippon datta,” in Bungei shunj (Feb. 1975), pp. 193, 198, 200.
52. ISN, dai gokan, p. 273.
53. Ib
id., pp. 56, 57, 111, 114, 132. The 1980 entries on the “Haichroku” are terse and occur on a daily, weekly, monthly basis.
54. Ibid., p. 214.
55. Ibid., p. 217.
56. Ibid.
57. Watanabe Osamu, “Kyj nendai Nihon kokka to tennsei,” in Bunka hyron 357 (Oct. l990), p. 45.
58. Yun Koncha, “Kozetsu no rekishi ishiki: ‘Shwa’ no shen to Ajia,” in Shis, No. 786 (Dec. l989), p. 12.
59. “Sokui no rei no shoten,” Asahi shinbun, Oct. 19–21, 1990.
60. Sasagawa Norikatsu, “Sokui no rei to daijsai,” in Yokota Kichi et al., eds., Shch tennsei no kz: kenpgakusha ni yoru kaidoku (Nihon Hyronsha, 1990), pp. 1193–212; Japan Times, Nov. 13, 1990.
61. Japan Times, Nov. 23, l990.
62. Mainichi shinbun, Dec. 23, 1990.
SEARCHABLE TERMS
Note: Entries in this index, carried over verbatim from the print edition of this title, are unlikely to correspond to the pagination of any given e-book reader. However, entries in this index, and other terms, may be easily located by using the search feature of your e-book reader.
ABCD encirclement, 407, 559
abdication issue, 649–50
constitutional reform and, 571–73
in occupation, 550, 552–53, 571–73, 628
in war crimes trial, 605–7, 618, 634
Abe Genki, 634
Abend, Hallett, 337
Abe Nobuyuki, 350, 354, 355, 357, 418, 430, 590
Abo Kiyokazu, 230
Acheson, Dean, 499, 543, 640
Adachi Taka, 24–25, 26
Aikokusha, 210
Aizawa Sabur, 296
Akagi, 194
Akihito, emperor of Japan, 271, 572, 664
accession of, 685–87
birth of, 271, 273
diary of, 514
engagement and marriage of, 661–62
as “future hope of Japan,” 650
Hirohito’s letters to, 533–34
leadership role of, 687–88
Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan Page 85
