Free Thinker
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271“The Woman Voter and the Next President of the United States,” Woman Citizen, March 22, 1919. Courtesy of Persuasive Maps: PJ Mode Collection, Cornell University Library.
276Gardener (center), NAWSA Congressional Committee members, and congressmen as House Speaker Frederick Gillette signs the Nineteenth Amendment. Library of Congress, 69916.
277Gardener (right) with Maud Wood Park (left) as Vice President Thomas Marshall signs the Nineteenth Amendment. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
281Gardener, Carrie Chapman Catt, and Maud Wood Park at Suffrage House, ca. 1919. History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 5.
289Gardener being sworn in as U.S. Civil Service Commissioner, April 13, 1920. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
292Gardener at work as U.S. Civil Service Commissioner. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
293The last photo taken of Gardener, 1924. Library of Congress, 92538.
302Gardener’s brain on display at Cornell University. Burt Wilder Brain Collection, Psychology Department, Cornell University. Photo taken by the author.
Index
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Note: Page numbers in italics indicate figures.
abolition movement, 6–9, 19, 23, 30–31, 194, 201–2, 252, 273
Adams, Henry, 84
Addams, Jane, 195
African Americans
after the Civil War, 194
in civil service, 287
excluded from World’s Columbian Exposition, 129
fear of growth of black electorate, 259 (see also Jim Crow laws)
Jim Crow segregation and, 53, 194 (see also Jim Crow laws)
violence against, 194
white suffragists and, 229, 251–52
African American women
excluded and shunned by NAWSA, 201–4, 249, 253
NAWSA and, 195, 201–4, 249, 253
“Southern Wall of Opposition” and, 250–52
woman suffrage movement and, 190–91, 194–95, 213, 249, 250–52, 255–58, 266, 271–73, 275, 279, 290–91, 296–97
See also African American women
agnosticism, 53–54, 61, 131
Aguerre, Gertrude, 176
Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority, Howard University, 202
Ambrose, William E., 205
American Revolution, 14
American Secular Union (ASU), 75, 94
The American Woman’s Home, 34
American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), 31, 102, 131. See also National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA)
Andrews, Stephen Pearl, 86
Anthony, Lucy, 282, 283, 284
Anthony, Susan B., 31, 32, 43, 106, 131, 169, 237, 248
arrested for registering for 1872 election, 32
attends World’s Congress of Representative Women, 129–30
bust of, 297
celebrated at NAWSA’s final convention, 286
cofounds NWSA, 101
death of, 190
History of Woman Suffrage, 102, 219, 283, 284
memorialization of, 296, 297
opening address at NAWSA’s day at 1893 world’s fair, 133
organizes ICW, 101–2
portrait of, 281–84
See also Susan B. Anthony Amendment
anti-suffragists, 253, 259, 273, 290
anti-vice crusaders, 136–37, 140. See also purity reformers
The Arena magazine, 117, 122, 126–27, 132, 135–36, 138, 142, 144
declares bankruptcy, 147, 148
no longer pays Gardener and Smart, 147
special edition on “The Shame of America,” 136–37
Arena Publishing Company, 147–48. See also The Arena magazine
Arlington National Cemetery, 269, 297, 303
Asia, 175–79
Atlanta, Georgia, 134, 140, 141
Atlanta Journal Constitution, 287
Atlantic City, New Jersey, 225
autonomy, 138–42, 144–46, 148
bodily, 138–42, 144–45
political, 138, 218–19
sexual, 139–42, 218–19
Bailey, H. C., 157, 173, 174–75
Baker, Ray Stannard, 295
Ball’s Bluff, 16, 17
Baltimore, Lord (Charles Calvert), 4, 127
Baltimore, Maryland, 140, 188
Baltimore County, Maryland, 4
Barnhart, Henry, 255
Bass, Elizabeth, 254
Bassford, Wallace, 223, 245
Battle of Cedar Mountain, 193
Battle of Cross Keys, 16
Battle of Shiloh, 17
Beard, Mary, 210, 216, 217
Bedford’s Monthly Magazine, 110, 111
Beecher, Catharine, 28, 34, 46
Beecher, Henry Ward, 48
Beecher-Tilton affair, 48
Belgium, 181
Bell, Alexander Graham, 67
Bellamy, Edward, Looking Backward, 114
Belmont, Alva, 191, 241
Berkeley County, Virginia (now West Virginia), 4, 5
big business, power of, 259
biological determinism, 181
birth control, 44–45
black electorate, fear of growth of, 259
Blackwell, Alice Stone, 201–2
Blackwell, Antoinette Brown, 80
Blackwell, Emily, 137
Blackwell, Henry, 131
Blaine, James, 52
Blatch, Harriot Stanton, 171
Bloom, Edward, 70
Blue and Gray reunions, 193, 298
Boas, Franz, 180–81
Booth, John Wilkes, 152
Borah, William, 272–73, 290–91
Boston, Massachusetts, 135–36, 142–43, 144, 147
brain science, 97–108, 171–72, 177, 179, 180–81, 300–303, 302
Braman, Elisha, 10
Britain
raising of age of sexual consent in, 137
woman suffrage in, 196
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 187–88
Brooks, Phillips, 115
Bryan, William Jennings, 218
Buckle, Henry T., History of Civilization, 62
Burkhart, Lillian, 176
Burns, J. J., 55
Burns, Lucy, 199, 209, 210, 213–14, 216, 217
California, 149–50, 173, 175, 219, 222, 232–33
Callaway, James, 272
Capitol building, Portrait Monument in, 297
Carnegie, Andrew, 85
Carrington, Percy, 87
Cassadaga Lake, New York, 74–75
Casson, Herbert, 173
Cating, Lovenia “Love,” 41, 47. See also Smart, Lovenia “Love”
Catt, Carrie Chapman, xiii, 117, 190, 192, 284
Anthony portrait and, 283
appointed to wartime post by Wilson, 238, 239
celebration of ratification and, 291
credits Gardener as key to Congressional passage, 278
“The Crisis,” 227
editorials for The Woman Citizen, 270
escorts Rankin to Capitol, 236
focus on states’ rights issue, 253–54
Gardener’s bequest to, 299–300
as leader of NAWSA, 220–22, 224–28, 232, 235–36, 238–39, 241–43, 246–47, 250, 252–54, 259, 262–67, 270, 272, 278, 290–91
leaving White House, 263
open letter to Alice Paul, 241
open speech to Congress, 264, 265
ouster of anti-suffrage Senators and, 267
as president of International Suffrage Commission, 268
ratification effort and, 290
signing ceremonies and, 290
at Suffrage House, 281
in Tennessee for ratification session, 290
tribute to Gardener, 298–99
victory celebration at Suffrage House and
, 280
vows never to watch another vote, 266
“Winning Plan,” 226–27, 232, 235, 254, 290
Woman Suffrage by Federal Constitutional Amendment, 235
Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, 43, 55, 73
Ceylon (Sri Lanka), 178–79
Chandler, W. M., 80
Chenoweth, Alfred Hamlin (brother), 17–18, 23–24, 52, 59, 60–61, 78, 153
blindness of, 78
contracts “epidemic ophthalmia,” 17–18
death of, 100
joins Union army, 17–18
marries Ella Crume, 24
moves to Troy, Missouri, 78
settles in Olney, Missouri, 24
sues Alice and mother’s estate, 60
wounded in Civil War, 19
Chenoweth, Alfred Griffith (father), 3, 5–6, 12–13, 16, 18–19
abolitionism and, 8–10
asked to volunteer as Union scout in Virginia, 17
becomes born again, 6
death of, 19
drawn to Methodism, 6–7
estate of, 20
heroism of, 9–10
marriage to Catherine Ann Peale, 7–8
moves family to Greencastle, Indiana, 10–11
moves family to Washington, D. C., 9
promoted to presiding elder over Northwest District, 14
Chenoweth, Bernard Peale, 12–15, 22–23, 52, 61, 62, 115, 153, 164
as abolitionist, 23
attends Indiana Asbury University, 12
becomes protégé of Ulysses S. Grant, 17
becomes U.S. consul in China, 23
death of, 23, 60, 178
ill with typhoid fever, 17
invests in Free Democrat, 15
marries Caroline Van Deusen, 17, 18–19
moves to St. Charles County, Missouri, 20
moves to St. Joseph, Missouri, 15
moves to Worcester, Massachusetts, 23
returns to Virginia, 23
in Union army, 16–17
Chenoweth, Caroline (Van Deusen), 17, 18–19, 23, 115, 116
moves to St. Charles County, Missouri, 20
serves as U.S. consul in China after Bernard’s death, 23
Chenoweth, Catherine Ann (Peale), 3, 7–8, 9, 15, 52, 59–60
Alfred’s death and, 19–20
burns copy of Paine’s Age of Reason, 14
Civil War and, 16–18
death of, 60, 62
follows Alfred (son) to Olney, Missouri, 24
grieving Bernard’s death, 23
moves in with William and Parmela, 21
will of, 60–61
Chenoweth, Ella (Crume), 24, 78
Chenoweth, Ernest Bernard, 115, 116
death of, 150–51
Chenoweth, John (brother), 17
Chenoweth, John (first to arrive in America), 4
Chenoweth, John (grandfather), 5, 10, 14
death of, 19
estate of, 20
Chenoweth, John (great-grandfather), 4, 5
Chenoweth, John (uncle), 10
Chenoweth, Julia, 11, 21, 27
death of, 33–34, 60
Chenoweth, Kate, 21, 34, 60, 100
death of, 150–51
Chenoweth, Mary Alice, 61
at 8th District School, 32–35
age sixteen, 22
age two, 11
agnosticism of, 10, 53
becomes Helen Hamilton Gardener, xii, 67–68, 159
becomes principal of teacher training school, 38–40
birth of, 8
at Cincinnati Normal School, 29–30, 51
Civil War and, 16–18
decides to remain single and become a teacher, 27–28, 29, 33–34
determines to fight for women’s rights, 62–63
early education of, 8–9
as executor of her mother’s estate, 60
falls out of favor with Sandusky leaders, 40
family history of, xiii, 3–5, 10, 84, 88, 127, 141, 151, 153, 189, 201, 252, 303
graduates from Cincinnati Normal School, 36
leaves Sandusky, Ohio, 49, 51
moves in with William and Parmela, 21
moves to Cincinnati, Ohio, 25–27, 29–30, 32–35
moves to New York City, 67–68
named in Jackson Standard, 48
nicknamed “Robin” by her brothers, 13
reinvention of herself in Detroit, 59–60
returns to Olney, Missouri, 52
Smart and, 42–48, 49–50, 56–60, 62–63, 77–78, 84, 87, 91–92, 109, 123–25, 156–58, 164
as teacher, 36–38, 39
tombstone of, 303
See also Gardener, Helen Hamilton; Gardener, Helen Hamilton, works, speeches, and lectures by
Chenoweth, Mary (first to arrive in America), 4
Chenoweth, Mary (grandmother), 19
death of, 19
Chenoweth, Minnie, 79
Chenoweth, Parmela (Hatcher), 21
death of, 34
Chenoweth, William Erasmus, 153
in 16th Indiana Infantry Regiment, 16–17
attends Indiana Asbury University, 12
becomes Alice’s legal guardian, 21
death of, 34
marries Parmela Hatcher, 21
moves to Cowley County, Kansas, 24
wounded in Civil War, 19
Chenoweth family, 3–4, 14–15, 59, 60, 21–22, 151
Civil War and, 16–18
Episcopal Church and, 5–6, 8
in Dardenne, Missouri, 20, 21–22
history of, xiii, 3–5, 84, 88, 127, 141, 151, 153, 201, 252, 303
in Missouri, 34, 36
moves to St. Charles County, Missouri, 20
See also specific family members
Chenoweth-Hatcher family, 21–22
Chicago, Illinois, 74, 83, 126–128, 169, 286
Chicago Evening Journal, 53
Chicago Times, 80–81, 127
Chicago Tribune, 71, 74, 146
Chickering Hall, 3, 67–68, 69, 76, 83
Chief Iron Tail, 179, 180
China, 178
Christianity
critique of, 61–62, 70–73, 79–80, 81, 94, 96–97, 140–41, 303
and public life, 131–32
Chronicles of America, 299–300
Church, Frederick, 188
Cincinnati, Ohio, 25–27, 29–30, 36, 52, 63
8th District School in, 32–35
Cincinnati Enquirer, 33, 34–35
Cincinnati Normal School, 29–30, 36, 51, 61
Circleville, Ohio, 41
Circleville Herald, 47
citizenship, voting rights and, 31–32, 200, 249, 252, 288
Civil War, 16–19, 31, 193–94, 233, 252, 253
consequences for women, 27–29, 194
in Gardener’s novels, 126–27
losses in, 54
memorialization of, 193, 296, 297–98
suffrage movement and, 194–95, 203–4
ties from, 192–93
veterans of, 18, 27, 34, 52, 88, 193–94, 296
white reconciliation after, 193–94, 252
women’s rights movement suspended during, 20, 237
Clark, Genevieve, 193, 199
Clark, James Beauchamp “Champ,” 189, 223, 236, 238–39, 242, 244–45, 255
Clarke, Edward
The Building of a Brain, 97
Sex in Education, or a Fair Chance for the Girls, 97
Clarke, Walter M., 258, 267
Classification Act of 1923, 294
Cleveland, Grover, 102
Cody, “Buffalo Bill,” Wild West Show of, 179, 180
Colby, Bainbridge, 290
Colby, Clara Bewick, 126, 211
College Equal Suffrage League, 211, 220
Colman, Lucy, 77
Colorado
raising of age of sexual consent in, 142
woman suffrage in, 192
Colton, Barnum L., 299
Columbia University, 95, 97, 181
Collegiate Course for Women, 95
Columbus, Christopher, 128
Commander, Lydia, 173
common school movement, 28–29
Common Sense, 87
Compromise of 1850, 8
Compromise of 1877, 53, 194
Comstock, Anthony, 44–45, 139
Comstock Laws, 44–45, 48, 73, 77
Confederacy, 16, 193, 194, 203–4
veterans of, 193–94, 252, 296
white reconciliation and, 193–94, 252
Congressional Record, 224
Congressional Union (CU), 206, 209, 211–18, 220, 222, 223–26, 229, 230, 234. See also National Woman’s Party (NWP)
Connecticut, ratification effort and, 289
contraception, 45. See also birth control
Corcoran Gallery, 283
Cornell University, xiii
Burt Wilder Brain Collection, 106–8, 107, 171, 300–302, 302
Corsica, 181
Cotton States and International Exposition of 1895, 140
Couden, Henry, 269
coverture, 19–20
Cowley County, Kansas, 24, 34
Cox, James, 290
Crane, Helen Gardener, 79, 237, 292, 298, 299
cremation, 157
The Crisis, 203, 251
Croly, Jane Cunningham (Jennie June), 129–30, 134, 141, 154
Crume, Ella, 24. See also Chenoweth, Ella
cult of domesticity, 34
Cummins, Albert, 275
Curran, Ulysses T., 38
Dardenne, Missouri, 20, 21–22, 25, 27, 34
Dardenne Presbyterian Church, 22
Darwin, Charles, 94, 96
Davis, Jefferson, 84, 164, 193
Davis, Katherine Bement, 226–27
Day, Alice C., 299, 303. See also Chenoweth, Mary Alice; Gardener, Helen Hamilton
Day, Helen Hamilton Gardener, 186. See also Gardener, Helen Hamilton
Day, Sam, 285–86, 292
Day, Selden A., 150, 159, 163–66, 165, 167, 179, 252, 278
attends annual Blue and Gray reunions, 193
burial of, 269, 303
buys a home in Washington, D. C., 188–89
in California, 219
Civil War ties of, 192–93
death of, 268–69
desired promotion of, 232–33, 236–37
European tour pioneering new form of adventure travel, 181–82
finances of, 170–71, 182, 292
in Fort Williams, Maine, 166–67, 168–69
health of, 179, 183, 232–33, 237, 268–69, 299
journey around the world with Gardener, 172–84
laid to rest at Arlington National Cemetery, 269
marries Gardener, 167–68, 172
as member of Men’s League for Women’s Suffrage, 199
moves to Washington, D. C., 184
travels of, 172–84, 219, 222, 232–33
volunteers to return to active duty, 237