14 Ibid., 13.
15 Ibid., 12.
16 ‘Zhongguo Gongchandang Zhongyang Weiyuanhui Guanyu Gongbu Zhongguo Tudifa Dagang de Jueyi’ (‘Resolution of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party about the Outline Land Law for China’) in ‘Zhonggong Zhongyang Wenjian Xuanji’ (‘Selected Documents of the CCP Central Committee’) (Beijing: Zhonggong Zhongyang Dangxiao Chubanshe, 1992), 546.
17 ‘Outline of China’s Land Law’ in Tony Saich and Bingzhang Yang, eds., The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party: Documents and Analysis (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1996), 1295.
18 Ibid., 1296.
19 Ch’en Yung-fa, ‘Neizhan, Mao Zedong, He Tudi Gemfing’, 1–2; Liu Shaoqi, ‘Directive of the CCP CC on Settling Accounts, Rent Reduction, and the Land Question’, 2 May 1946, in Saich, ed., The Rise to Power of the Chinese Communist Party, 1281.
20 Ch’en Yung-fa, ‘Neizhan, Mao Zedong, He Tudi Gemfing’, 17.
21 Carl von Clausewitz, On War, J. J. Graham, trans., revision by F. N. Mause, abridged by Louise Wilmot (London: Wordsworth, 1997), 288.
22 William Hinton, Fanshen: A Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1967), 12–13.
23 Ibid., 13.
24 Ibid., 29.
25 Ibid., 33.
26 Ibid., 42–3.
27 Ibid., 89–91.
28 Ibid., 92.
29 Ibid., 137.
30 Ibid., 332–40.
31 Ibid., 319–20.
32 Ibid., 321.
33 Ibid., xi.
34 ‘Condition in North Honan, Kaifeng’, 1 June 1947, unsigned letter, enclosed in ‘T.C. Davis, Canadian Ambassador to China, to R. S. Stevenson’, 25 June 1947, ‘Situation in China: Visit of General Marshall’, UK National Archives, FO 371/63325.
35 Quoted in Harrison E. Salisbury, The Long March: The Untold Story (London: Macmillan, 1985), 191–2; Edgar Snow, Red Star over China (originally published London: Victor Gollancz, 1937; New York: Grove Press, 1961), 135.
36 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 4.
37 Li Chen, ‘From Burma Road to the 38th Parallel: The Chinese Forces’ Adaptation in War 1942–1953’, (Cambridge University Ph.D. dissertation, 2013), 174.
38 ‘Chinese Communist–Soviet Secret Pact on Manchuria Revealed, as Reported 17 May 1946’, in ‘Military Attaché: Monthly Reports’, in ‘Manchuria’, UK National Archives, WO 208/4736.
39 ‘China: Soviets on the Kuantung Peninsula’, 27 April 1948, ‘South Manchuria: Military: Kwantung Peninsular: Russian Occupied Territory’, UK National Archives, WO 208/4722.
40 ‘Military Information: Soviets and Chinese Communists: Kuantung Peninsula’, 12 September 1947, in ‘Manchuria’, UK National Archives, WO 208/4721; ‘Russian Activities in the Far East’, 22 March 1946, in ‘Manchuria’, UK National Archives WO 208/4736.
41 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 146.
42 Yang Kuisong, Zhongjian Didai de Geming: Guoji Da Beijing Xia Kan Zhonggong Chenggong Zhi Dao (A Middle Zone Revolution: Looking at the Chinese Communist Party’s Road to Success from an International Context) (Taiyuan: Shanxi Renmin Chubanshe, 2010), 509.
43 William Nimmo, Behind a Curtain of Silence: Japanese in Soviet Custody, 1945–1956 (Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, 1988).
44 Liu Yalou, ‘Jiaqiang Wo Jun Jianshe he Fazhan de Jidian Yijian’ (‘Suggestions for Strengthening and Developing Our Army’), in Liu Yalou, Liu Yalou Junshi Wenji (Collected Military Writings of Liu Yalou) (Beijing: Lantian Chubanshe, 2010), 90–93.
45 Liu Yalou, ‘Guanyu Paobing de Shiyong Wenti’ (‘On the Use of Artillery’), in Liu Yalou, Liu Yalou Junshi Wenji (Collected Military Writings of Liu Yalou) (Beijing: Lantian Chubanshe, 2010), 136–40.
46 Liu Yalou,’ ‘Jiaqiang Wo Jun Jianshe he Fazhan de Jidian Yijian’ (‘Suggestions for Strengthening and Developing Our Army’), 90–104.
47 Liu Yalou, ‘Silian “Hongjun Yezhan Canmou Yeweu Tiaoling” Yiban Xuyan’ (‘Foreword to the Translation of Field Staff Officers Manual of the Red Army’), in Liu Yalou, Liu Yalou Junshi Wenji (Collected Military Writings of Liu Yalou) (Beijing: Lantian Chubanshe), 112–15.
48 Quoted in Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 153.
49 Lin Biao, ‘Yidian Liangmian Zhanshu’ (‘The Tactics of One Point and Two Flanks’), in Lin Doudou, ed., Lin Biao Junshi Wenxuan (Selected Military Writings of Lin Biao) (Hong Kong: Zhongguo Wenge Lishi Chubanshe, 2012), 188–92. See also Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 58–61.
50 Lin Biao, ‘San San San Zhi Zhanshu’ (‘The Tactics of the Three–Three System’), in Lin Doudou, ed., Lin Biao (Selected Military Writings of Lin Biao) (Hong Kong: Zhongguo Wenge Lishi Chubanshe, 2012), 193–7.
51 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 78.
52 ‘Air Attaché Annual Report 1947’, in ‘Air Attaché, Nanking: Annual Report for 1947’, UK National Archive, FO 371/69637.
53 ‘Szepingkai Victors Find Many Dead Reds’, The New York Times, 2 July 1947.
54 Lin Biao, ‘Guanyu Sikuai Yimian’ (‘Concerning Four Fasts and One Slow’), in Lin Doudou, ed., Lin Biao Junshi Wenxuan, 266–72.
55 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 155–7.
56 Liu Yalou, ‘Formations Used in Combat In Depth’, in Liu Yalou, Liu Yalou Junshi Wenji, 132–4; Liu Yalou, ‘On the Use of Artillery’, 136–40.
57 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 151.
58 Quoted in ‘Ralph Stevenson to FO’, 9 July 1948, in ‘Situation in China: Situation Reports from Nanking’, UK National Archives, 371/69536.
59 Frank Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation: A History of the Chinese Revolution, 1945–57 (London: Bloomsbury, 2013), 4.
60 Quoted in Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 173.
61 Quoted in ibid., 173.
62 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 175–80.
63 Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, 5.
64 ‘China is Wordless on Traumas Inflicted in Communists’ Rise’, The New York Times, 1 October 2009.
65 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 240.
66 Ibid., 234.
67 W. G. Graham, ‘The Plight of Refugees in the Chang-ch’un Area’, 13 September 1948, in ‘Military, Industrial, and Economic Situation in Manchuria’, UK National Archives, FO 371/69591.
68 ‘Changchun Left to Reds by Chinese’, The New York Times, 7 October 1948.
69 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 326, n. 4.
70 ‘China is Wordless on Traumas Inflicted in Communists’ Rise’, The New York Times, 1 October 2009.
71 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 262.
72 ‘300,000 Starving in Mukden’s Siege’, The New York Times, 2 July 1948; Dikötter, The Tragedy of Liberation, 1–8.
73 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 184.
74 Ibid., 187–9.
75 Ibid., 189.
76 Ibid., 189–91.
77 Ibid., 191.
78 Quoted in ibid., 195.
79 Quoted in ibid., 197.
80 Quoted in ibid., 198.
81 Ibid., 210–16.
82 ‘Military Situation: Loss of Chinchow’, in ‘Military, Industrial, and Economic Situation in Manchuria’, UK National Archives, FO 371/69591.
83 Tanner, Where Chiang Kai-shek Lost China, 243–9.
84 Ibid., 252–61.
85 Ibid., 261–7.
86 ‘Mukden is Bombed by Nanking as Reds Capture City’, The New York Times, 2 November 1948.
87 Lionel Lamb to Foreign Office’, 28 October 1948, in ‘Situation in China: Situation Reports from Nanking’, UK National Archives, FO 371/69541.
88 Suzanne Pepper, ‘The KMT–CCP Conflict, 1945–1949’, in CHOC, vol. 13, 743–6.
89 Ibid., 742.
90 Ibid., 745–7.
91 Zhang Xianwen, Zhang Xianwen, Zhonghua Minguo Shi (History of the Republic of China) (Nanjing: Nanjing Daxue Chubanshe, 2005), vol. 4, 245–7
.
92 Ibid., vol. 4, 251–61.
93 ‘China, Military’, 16 September 1948, in ‘Manchuria: Area A: Communist Army’, UK National Archives, WO 208/4725.
Chapter 14: Exhaustion
1 Sheila Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War: The Unending Conflict in Korea (London: Profile, 2013), 13.
2 Alexander Pantsov and Steven I. Levine, Mao: The Real Story (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2012), 377.
3 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 59.
4 Ibid., 49, 53.
5 Ibid., 58–60; Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 375–9.
6 Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 378.
7 Ibid., 377–9.
8 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 69–71.
9 Ibid., 73–9.
10 ‘NSC 68: United States Objectives and Programs for National Security’, https://fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsc-hst/nsc-68–1.htm.
11 Ibid.
12 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 72.
13 ‘Resolution 84 (1950)’, http://www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f1e85c.html.
14 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 80–85, 113–16.
15 Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 380–81.
16 Ibid., 379.
17 Chen Jian, China’s Road to the Korean War: The Making of the Sino-American Confrontation (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 173–5.
18 Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 381; Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 121 and 511, n. 25.
19 Chen Jian, China’s Road to the Korean War, 182.
20 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 111–21.
21 Ibid., 121; Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 383.
22 Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 383.
23 Ibid.
24 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 123; Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 384.
25 Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 384.
26 Mihoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 123.
27 ‘Speech, Zhou Enlai, at the 18th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference’, in Shuguang Zhang and Jian Chen, eds., Chinese Communist Foreign Policy and the Cold War in Asia: New Documentary Evidence, 1944 –1950 (Chicago, IL: Imprint Publishing, 1996), 186–7.
28 Li Chen, ‘From Civil War Victor to Cold War Guard: Positional Warfare in Korea and the Transformation of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army, 1951–1953’, in Journal of Strategic Studies, vol. 38 (2015), 183–214.
29 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 136.
30 Ibid., 134.
31 ‘Retreat from Changjin’, The New York Times, 11 December 1950.
32 Li Chen, ‘From Civil War Victor to Cold War Guard’, 189.
33 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 138.
34 Ibid., 130–63.
35 Ibid., 162–73.
36 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 173–7.
37 Ibid., 192.
38 Ibid., 165–6.
39 Bruce Cumings, The Korean War: A History (New York: Modern Library, 2010), 150–61.
40 Miyoshi Jager, Brothers at War, 481–3.
41 Roughly the numbers suggested in Pantsov and Levine, Mao, 387.
42 Shen Jinding, ‘Canjia Zhu Ri Daibiaotuan de Huiyi’ (‘Recollections of My Participation in China’s Delegation in Japan’), in ZHMGZYSLCB, series 7, vol. 4, 667.
43 For this and the following paragraphs, see Hans van de Ven, ‘The 1952 Treaty of Peace between China and Japan’, in Hans van de Ven, Diana Lary and Stephen MacKinnon, eds., Negotiating China’s Destiny in World War II (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014), 222–3.
44 Ibid., 223.
45 Ibid.
46 Ibid., 224.
47 Ibid.
48 ‘Treaty of Peace with Japan’, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20136/volume-136-I-1832-English.pdf.
49 Van de Ven, ‘The 1952 Treaty of Peace between China and Japan’, 225.
50 Quoted in ibid., 225.
51 ‘Treaty of Peace with Japan’, https://treaties.un.org/doc/Publication/UNTS/Volume%20136/volume-136-I-1832-English.pdf.
52 Van de Ven, ‘The 1952 Treaty of Peace between China and Japan’, 230.
53 Quoted in ibid., 230.
54 ‘Japan Recognizes Chiang Regime as Ruler of All China and Bars Pact with Peiping’, The New York Times, 19 June 1952.
55 Van de Ven, ‘The 1952 Treaty of Peace between China and Japan’, 231.
56 Quoted in ibid., 231.
57 Melvyn P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992), 391–5, 413–29.
58 ‘Japan Recognizes Chiang Regime as Ruler of All China and Bars Pact with Peiping’, The New York Times, 19 June 1952.
59 Van de Ven, ‘The 1952 Treaty of Peace between China and Japan’, 235.
60 Diary entry for 27 April 1952 in Diary of Chiang Kaishek, Hoover Institution Archives, box 49, folder 12. I am grateful for Lin Hsiao-ting for this reference.
61 ‘Red China Calls “Peace” Gathering’, The New York Times, 15 May 1952.
62 ‘Red “Peace Parley” Sounds Amity Note’, The New York Times, 3 October 1952.
63 Julia Strauss, ‘Morality, Coercion, and State Building by Campaign in the Early PRC: Regime Consolidation and After, 1949 –1956’, China Quarterly 188 (2006), 901.
Epilogue: Transitions
1 Julia Strauss, ‘Morality, Coercion, and State Building by Campaign in the Early PRC: Regime Consolidation and After, 1949 –1956’, China Quarterly 188 (2006), 892; Frank Dikötter, Mao’s Great Famine: The History of China’s Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62 (London: Bloomsbury, 2010), 324–34.
2 Qian Liqun, Mao Zedong Shidai He Hou Mao Zedong Shidai (The Mao Era and the Post-Mao Era) (Taipei: Lianjing Chuban Shiye Gufen Youxian Gongsi, 2012), 25.
3 Ibid., 7.
4 Mao Zedong, ‘Zhanzheng He Zhanlue Wenti’ (‘Issues of War and Strategy’), November 1936, in Mao Zedong, Mao Zedong Junshi Wenji (Collected Military Writings of Mao Zedong) (Beijing: Military Sciences Press, 1993), vol. 2, 421.
5 Neil J. Diamant, Embattled Glory: Veterans, Military Families, and the Politics of Patriotism in China, 1949–2007 (Lanham, MY: Rowman and Littlefield, 2008), chapters 2–5.
6 Chi Pang-yuan, Juliuhe (The Great Flowing River) (Taipei: Yuanjian Tianxia, 2014), 298.
7 Ibid., 298–9.
8 Ibid., 304.
9 Ibid., 316.
10 Ibid., 320.
11 Ibid., 319–26.
12 Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji (Chen Kewen’s Diary), Chen Fangzheng, ed. (Taipei: Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, 2012), 1050.
13 Ibid., 1071–81.
14 Ibid., 1095.
15 Ibid., 1098–99.
16 Ibid., 1100.
17 Ibid., 1103–4.
18 Ibid., 1098.
19 Ibid., 1128–9.
20 Ibid., 1148.
21 Ibid., 1247.
22 Chen Fangzheng, ‘Bianzhe Xu’ (‘Foreword by the Editor’), in Chen Kewen, Chen Kewen Riji, xiv–xv.
23 Timothy Cheek, Propaganda and Culture in Mao’s China: Deng Tuo and the Intelligentsia (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 279–306.
24 Mary G. Mazur, Wu Han, Historian: Son of China’s Times (Lanham, MY: Lexington Books, 2009).
25 The paragraphs below are based on Professor Yeh Wen-hsin’s study of Chen Yinke and her reflections on his writings. I am deeply grateful for her agreement to borrow and repeat her trenchant ideas here.
26 Yeh Wen-hsin, ‘Historian and Courtesan: Chen Yinke and the Writing of Liu Rushi Biezhuan’, Morrison Lecture, Australia National University (July 2003) and East Asian History 27 (2004), 61.
27 Yeh Wen-hsin, ‘Historian and Courtesan’, 67–70.
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