Primal Myths

by Barbara C. Sproul

  Like the Bushmen, Hottentots speak a Khoisan dialect of the “click” languages: the “clicks,” implosive sounds analagous to consonants, are marked by double vertical lines in this text. Similar to the Bushmen in religion as well, the Hottentots posit a dualistic order in which Tsui || goab (“wounded knee”) finally triumphs over the evil || Gaunab, lord of the “dark heaven” and of the dead. Given the relation of || Gaunab to the supreme god of the neighboring Damara people, his presence here may reflect a long history of tribal warfare as much as an essentially dualistic world view.

  Although generally credited with creation, Tsui || goab is thoroughly anthropomorphized and very much of the world. In fact, he is portrayed here as the first ancestor, miraculous in his regenerative power, but still vulnerable and evolving more in the way of a creature than a creator.

  TSUI-||GOAB was a great powerful chief of the Khoikhoi; in fact, he was the first Khoikhoib, from whom all the Khoikhoi tribes took their origin. But Tsui || goab was not his original name. This Tsui || goab went to war with another chief, || Gaunab, because the latter always killed great numbers of Tsui || goab’s people. In this fight, however, Tsui || goab was repeatedly overpowered by || Gaunab, but in every battle the former grew stronger; and at last he was so strong and big that he easily destroyed || Gaunab, by giving him one blow behind the ear. While || Gaunab was expiring he gave his enemy a blow on the knee. Since that day the conqueror of || Gaunab received the name Tsui- || goab, “sore knee,” or “wounded knee.” Henceforth he could not walk properly, because he was lame. He could do wonderful things, which no other man could do, because he was very wise. He could tell what would happen in future times. He died several times, and several times he rose again. And whenever he came back to us, there were great feastings and rejoicings. Milk was brought from every kraal, and fat cows and fat ewes were slaughtered. Tsui I || goab gave every man plenty of cattle and sheep, because he was very rich. He gives rain, he makes the clouds, he lives in the clouds, and he makes our cows and sheep fruitful.

  Tsui || goab lives in a beautiful heaven, and || Gaunab lives in a dark heaven, quite separated from the heaven of Tsui || goab.

  —Theodore Hahn. Tsui||Goab, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi. London: (no publisher) 1881, p. 61.

  BAROTSE

  God Retreats to the Sky

  While the Old Testament and other ancient Near Eastern texts describe the separation of God and man in terms of man’s expulsion from paradise, African myths often express the same point in terms of God’s abandonment of the world. Presumably climatic and geographical differences account for the metaphoric ones.

  The Barotse (or Lozi) people of Zambia tell of a harmonious and sacred beginning when the creator Nyambi lived on earth with his wife and made all things. Because of man’s transgression—he murdered other creatures—Nyambi first banished him from his sacred realm; later he forgave his errant creature and presented him with land to till, but Kamonu reverted to his old ways. Finally, in despair, Nyambi retreated from the world.

  Aside from asserting the appropriateness of farming as an occupation in harmony with the sacred way of the world and describing the disruption of that harmony caused by hunting, the myth clearly depicts human nature as ambitious and aggressive, at odds with the will of God. Kamonu is more intelligent but less sensible than others, as is evidenced by his final attempt to restore his connection to Nyambi. Having caused the breach, he attempts to repair it by building a great tower to heaven (an axis mundi similar to the Tower of Babel), but his failure shows the irrevocable nature of the split. Cut off from his creator, he can only greet him now as the sun.

  First visited by David Livingstone in 1851, Barotseland became part of a British protectorate forty years later and a province of Northern Rhodesia when it was formed in 1911. In 1964, the country—now called Zambia—won its inpendence.

  IN THE BEGINNING Nyambi made all things. He made animals, fishes, birds. At that time he lived on earth with his wife, Nasilele. One of Nyambi’s creatures was different from all the others. His name was Kamonu. Kamonu imitated Nyambi in everything Nyambi did. When Nyambi worked in wood, Kamonu worked in wood; when Nyambi forged iron Kamonu forged iron.

  After a while Nyambi began to fear Kamonu.

  Then one day Kamonu forged a spear and killed a male antelope, and he went on killing. Nyambi grew very angry at this.

  “Man, you are acting badly,” he said to Kamonu. “These are your brothers. Do not kill them.”

  Nyambi drove Kamonu out into another land. But after a while Kamonu returned. Nyambi allowed him to stay and gave him a garden to cultivate.

  It happened that at night buffaloes wandered into Kamonu’s garden and he speared them; after that, some elands, and he killed one. After some time Kamonu’s dog died; then his pot broke; then his child died. When Kamonu went to Nyambi to tell him what had happened he found his dog and his pot and his child at Nyambi’s.

  Then Kamonu said to Nyambi, “Give me medicine so that I may keep my things.” But Nyambi refused to give him medicine. After this, Nyambi met with his two counselors and said, “How shall we live since Kamonu knows too well the road hither?”

  Nyambi tried various means to flee Kamonu. He removed himself and his court to an island across the river. But Kamonu made a raft of reeds and crossed over to Nyambi’s island. Then Nyambi piled up a huge mountain and went to live on its peak. Still Nyambi could not get away from man. Kamonu found his way to him. In the meantime men were multiplying and spreading all over the earth.

  Finally Nyambi sent birds to go look for a place for Litoma, god’s town. But the birds failed to find a place. Nyambi sought council from a diviner. The diviner said, “Your life depends on Spider.” And Spider went and found an abode for Nyambi and his court in the sky. Then Spider spun a thread from earth to the sky and Nyambi climbed up on the thread. Then the diviner advised Nyambi to put out Spider’s eyes so that he could never see the way to heaven again and Nyambi did so.

  After Nyambi disappeared into the sky Kamonu gathered some men around him and said, “Let us build a high tower and climb up to Nyambi.” They cut down trees and put log on log, higher and higher toward the sky. But the weight was too great and the tower collapsed. So that Kamonu never found his way to Nyambi’s home.

  But every morning when the sun appeared, Kamonu greeted it, saying, “Here is our king. He has come.” And all the other people greeted him shouting and clapping. At the time of the new moon men call on Nasilele, Nyambi’s wife.

  —Susan Feldman (ed.). African Myths and Tales. New York: Dell Publishing, 1963, pp. 36–37.—Adapted from E. W. Smith. African Ideas of God. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1950.

  YAO

  The Chameleon Finds

  The Yao live on the shores of Lake Nyasa in northern Mozambique. Unlike many other Bantu tribes who envision a heavenly origin for people, the Yao assert their emergence from the earth (born from a hole in the ground) or, as is the case here, from the water. The Yao agree, however, with other Africans in their estimation of human character. Peoples’ “progress” in controlling their environment, their ability to hunt successfully and to make fires, is seen from the perspective of the rest of nature and its creator as destructive and cruel. Having violated the sacred harmony of the world, people force God to retreat to the sky.

  AT FIRST there were no people. Only Mulungu and the decent peaceful beasts were in the world.

  One day Chameleon sat weaving a fish-trap, and when he had finished he set it in the river. In the morning he pulled the trap and it was full of fish, which he took home and ate.

  He set the trap again. In the morning he pulled it out and it was empty: no fish.

  “Bad luck,” he said, and set the trap again.

  The next morning when he pulled the trap he found a little man and woman in it. He had never seen any creatures like this.

  “What can they be?” he said. “Today I behold the unknown.” And he picked up the fish-trap and took the
two creatures to Mulungu.

  “Father,” said Chameleon, “see what I have brought.”

  Mulungu looked. “Take them out of the trap,” he said. “Put them down on the earth and they will grow.”

  Chameleon did this. And the man and woman grew. They grew until they became as tall as men and women are today.

  All the animals watched to see what the people would do. They made fire. They rubbed two sticks together in a special way and thus made fire. The fire caught in the bush and roared through the forest and the animals had to run to escape the flames.

  The people caught a buffalo and killed it and roasted it in the fire and ate it. Then next day they did the same thing. Every day they set fires and killed some animal and ate it.

  “They are burning up everything!” said Mulungu. “They are killing my people!”

  All the beasts ran into the forest as far away from mankind as they could get. Chameleon went into the high trees.

  “I’m leaving!” said Mulungu.

  He called to Spider. “How do you climb on high?” he said.

  “Very nicely,” said Spider. And Spider spun a rope for Mulungu and Mulungu climbed the rope and went to live in the sky.

  Thus the gods were driven off the face of the earth by the cruelty of man. —Maria Leach. The Beginning. New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1956, pp. 143–144.—Retold from material in Duff Macdonald. Africana: The Heart of Heathen Africa. Vol. I. London: (no publisher) 1882, pp. 295 ff.

  SWAHILI

  Making the World and Man

  Islam entered East Africa from the Red Sea and Indian Ocean and gained converts among the Hamitic nomads on a tribal basis. Inland south of Somali, however, it did not begin to spread until c. 1850 and then did so on a much slower, more individual basis. While it did not affect most Bantu peoples, Islam did attract many Swahili-speaking groups along the coast of Kenya and Tanzania. A Swahili culture based on Islamic teachings sprang up and eventually incorporated Shirazi (inhabitants of Zanzibar and Pemba Islands), Afro-Arabs, descendants of slaves (brought to Islam through the Arab slave trade), and detribalized laborers from the interior.

  These Swahili creation myths are thoroughly Islamic. The first describes the creation of holy things (Mohammed’s soul, heaven and hell, angels, God’s laws and his apocalyptic trumpet, and so on). Although God was present before time, there seems to be some notion of not-being also “existing” here. It was from this “nothingness” that God molded his creations.

  The second myth portrays God ordering the universe, separating opposite elements (light and dark, land and sea) and causing them to bear creatures. The last myth describes God’s creation of man: although the angels were apprehensive, God made Adam a mix of light and darkness, spirit and matter, to be his servant and to rule over the created world.

  I Before the beginning of time there was God. He was never born nor will He ever die. If He wishes a thing, He merely says to it: “Be!” and it exists.

  So God said: “There be light!” And there was light. God took a fistful of this light and it shone in His hand. Then He said: “I am pleased with you, my light, I will make out of you my prophet, I will mould you into the soul of Mohammed.”

  When he had created the soul of the prophet Mohammed (May God pray for him and give him peace), He loved it so much that He decided to create mankind so that He might send Mohammed to it as His messenger to bring His word to Earth. His word would teach the peoples of the earth the distinction between Good and Evil, and in the end God would judge all the souls and reward those who had chosen to follow the Good Messenger, and reject the others.

  With his infinite knowledge God foresaw all the events that would happen in the centuries to follow until the last day. With His unlimited power God began to create all the things He would need for some purpose which He alone knew.

  First He created the Throne and the Carpet for Himself to sit on at the Last Judgement. The Throne has four legs supported by four strong beasts. The Carpet that covers it has all the lovely colours of the rainbow and stretches out along the skies as far as the borders of space. Under the Throne there is the most delightful place in the Universe: the souls who are allowed to dwell in the shadow of the Carpet will rejoice for ever. The brilliant light of the Divine Presence is softly filtered by the many-coloured veils of which the Carpet is composed.

  The third thing God created was the Well-preserved Tablet. It is a board so large that it can contain a complete and detailed description of all the events that ever take place anywhere in past and future. The Tablet has a soul of her own and is one of God’s most faithful servants. She carries all His wisdom and all His commandments for ever and ever. She is called the Mother of Books, because all the Sacred Books of Mankind in which God has revealed some of His Truth contain only fragments of her contents. The secrets of the Universe, in so far as they were ever represented by symbols, are inscribed on her surface, in characters which only He can read.

  With the Tablet He created the Pen to write His commandments. The Pen is as long as the distance between Heaven and Earth. It has a thinking head and a personality, and as soon as it had come into existence, God ordered it: “Write!” The Pen asked: “What shall I write, my Lord?” God said: “Destiny.” Since that moment the Pen has been busy writing on the Tablet all the deeds of men.

  Of course, if it pleases God to change His mind, He does so. If He projects a different future than was foreseen in previous plans, the writing will disappear from the Tablet and the Pen will record new facts.

  The fifth thing God created was the Trumpet, and with it the archangel Serafili [Asrafel]. The angel holds the Trumpet to his mouth, waiting patiently in the same position, century after century, until it pleases God to terminate history. Then He will give the signal, and Serafili will blow his first blast. The Trumpet has such a powerful voice that at its first sound the mountains will collapse, the stars will come plummeting down and Doomsday will begin.

  The sixth thing which God created was the Garden of Delights which was destined for the good souls. There they would sojourn for ever and ever, forgetting the sufferings of their lives on earth. In it there are streams of limpid water, rivers of milk and honey, fragrant flowers and trees whose branches bend down heavy with fruits. The fruits are soft and sweet and juicy and as soon as one falls off, a new one grows on the same branch in no time. Who would not give everything he possessed to be there? Who would not endure a short span of life on earth to dwell in that garden for all eternity?

  The seventh thing which God created, foreseeing in His wisdom that many souls would not follow the good Messenger, was the Fire. Crackling, it sprang up from the deepest bottom of shadows, in the remotest pit of space. Evil smell and smoke is its essence, roaring thunder its voice. “My Lord,” cried the Fire, “where are the souls of sinners, I want to see them suffer!” Who would not pray night and day that his soul may avoid this eternal torture.

  God went on and on creating, taking things out of not-being, for God requires no rest; neither sleep nor slumber seize Him.

  God now created the angels, a myriad voices who proclaim His praise. Out of pure light He created them; their minds are lucid as the light itself, their hearts are pure as morning air. The thought of sin never occurs to them, they never hatch evil plans in their bosoms. They are as honest as the light that is their element and always shines through their bodies. This is why they are devoted servants of their Lord, and the idea of disobedience cannot arise in their hearts. Their wings are shining white and soft; they tremble with the fear of God.

  The first of the archangels is Jiburili [Gabriel] whose task it is to carry God’s Word to His prophets. Therefore Jiburili is also called the Trustworthy Spirit.

  The tradition says that Mohammed, during his life on earth, asked Jiburili: “Show me your true shape.” Jiburili warned him that this would be dangerous, but Mohammed insisted. Then Jiburili showed himself, and lo! he filled the whole horizon, and his many wings rustled through the ski
es from east to west. The prophet fainted with fear, and fell. Jiburili lifted him up and said: “Do not fear, I am your brother Jiburili.”

  When God had doomed the cities of Lot, He sent Jiburili to destroy them. To this end, Jiburili unfolded two special black wings that spell perdition whenever they appear. With these wings he tore the two cities out of the earth like poisonous toadstools, raised them so high that the inhabitants of heaven could hear their cocks crowing, and then flung them down into the Fire.

  Mikaili [Michael] is the second archangel. He is in charge of the sustenance of all the creatures of the earth. Thousands of angels serve under his command and are busy day and night. They provide all living beings with all the things they need, according to God’s decree. Some will receive plenty, others may starve, and He alone knows the reason. No mortal being need fear that he will not receive his due. What God has destined for him will come to him: air to breathe, water to drink, food to eat, partners to procreate with. We do not have to look for these things; they will be brought to us. We are all like beggars sitting at the Lord’s door, and praying that He may throw us a few coins daily.

  Serafili [Asrafel], the angel of the Trumpet, has already been mentioned. His task is simply to wait for the signal of the end.

  Zeraili [Azrael] is the angel of death, the taker of souls, who brings each creature the last message. He obeys God alone, he commands kings and caliphs, jinns and giants, and they all follow him humbly into the unknown.

  Maliki is the guardian of the Fire in which the sinful souls, the hypocrites and heathens, are punished. His face is terrible to see; he is created out of the glowing clouds of God’s wrath.