Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815

by Gordon S. Wood

  69. Hatch, Democratization of Christianity, 52.

  70. Mark A. Noll, America’s God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln (New York, 2002), 380; Donald G. Mathews, “The Second Great Awakening as an Organizing Process, 1780–1830: A Hypothesis,” American Quarterly, 21 (1969), 23–43.

  71. Smith, The Loving Kindness of God Displayed in the Triumph of Republicanism in America (n.p., 1809), 27.

  72. Belden C. Lane, “Presbyterian Republicanism: Miller and the Eldership as an Answer to Lay-Clerical Tensions,” Journal of Presbyterian History, 56 (1978), 311–14.

  73. John Rogers, The Biography of Elder Barton Warren Stone . . . (Cincinnati, 1847), 45; Hatch, Democratization of Christianity, 70.

  74. Paul G. Faler, Mechanics and Manufacturers in the Early Industrial Revolution: Lynn, Massachusetts, 1780–1860 (Albany, 1981), 46.

  75. Randolph A. Roth, The Democratic Dilemma: Religion, Reform, and The Social Order in the Connecticut River Valley of Vermont, 1791–1850 (Cambridge, UK, 1987), 62; John Saillant, Black Puritan, Black Republican: The Life and Thought of Lemuel Haynes, 1753–1833 (New York, 2003); Richard Newman, “Lemuel Haynes,” American National Biography, 10: 417–18. For the appeal of Universalism among workingmen in Philadelphia, see Ronald Schultz, “God and Workingmen: Popular Religion and the Formation of Philadelphia’s Working Class, 1790–1830,” in Hoffman and Albert, eds., Religion in a Revolutionary Age, 138.

  76. Andrews, Methodists of Revolutionary America, 82; Marini, Radical Sects, 88; Marini, “Revolutionary Revival,” 53–54; Richard Rabinowitz, The Spiritual Self in Everyday Life: The Transformation of Personal Religious Experience in Nineteenth-Century New England (Boston, 1989), 3–151.

  77. Abel M. Sargent, The Destruction of the Beast in the Downfall of Sectarianism (n.p., [1806]), 15.

  78. Josiah Quincy, The History of Harvard University (Cambridge, MA, 1840), 2: 663.

  79. On Dow, see Charles C. Sellers, Lorenzo Dow: The Bearer of the Word (New York, 1928); and Hatch, Democratization of Christianity, 36–40. On these religious developments, see in general Whitney R. Cross, The Burned-Over District: The Social and Intellectual History of Enthusiastic Religion in Western New York, 1800–1850 (New York, 1965); John R. Boles, The Great Revival, 1787–1805 (Lexington, KY, 1972); Donald G. Mathews, Religion in the Old South (Chicago, 1977); and Anne C. Loveland, Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order, 1800–1860 (Baton Rouge, 1980).

  80. Hatch, Democratization of Christianity, 36–37.

  81. Boles, Great Revival, 128–29.

  82. Joseph Smith, The Pearl of Great Price (Salt Lake City, 1974), 47.

  83. Asael Smith (1799), in William Mulder and A. Russell Mortensen, eds., Among the Mormons: Historic Accounts by Contemporary Observers (New York, 1958), 24.

  84. Stein, Shaker Experience, 80–86.

  85. Paul C. Gutjahr, An American Bible: A History of the Good Book in the United States, 1777–1880 (Stanford, 1999), 1.

  86. Gutjahr, American Bible, 23–29; Peter J. Wosh, Spreading the Word: The Bible Business in Nineteenth-Century America (Ithaca, 1994).

  87. Donald M. Scott, From Office to Profession: The New England Ministry, 1750–1850 (Philadelphia, 1978), 34, 47–48.

  88. Lyman Beecher, On the Importance of Assisting Young Men of Piety and Talents in Obtaining an Education for the Gospel Ministry (New York, 1815), 16.

  89. On the Similarity of the Messages of Hopkins, Campbell, and Jefferson, see H. Sheldon Smith, Robert T. Handy, and Lefferts A. Loetscher, American Christianity: An Historical Interpretation with Representative Documents (New York, 1960), 1: 516, 543–44, 579–86.

  90. Paul E. Johnson, “Democracy, Patriarchy, and American Revivals, 1780–1830,” Journal of Social History, 24 (1990–91), 843–49; Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, ed. Phillips Bradley (1835; New York, 1956), 1: 306; Hugh Heclo, Christianity and American Democracy (Cambridge, MA, 2007). Naturally, some religious people could be very critical of the emerging market world. See Jama Lazerow, Religion and the Working Class in Antebellum America (Washington, DC, 1995), which contends that religion decisively affected the nature of antebellum labor protest.

  91. William Breitenbach, “Unregenerate Doings: Selflessness and Selfishness in New Divinity Theology,” American Quarterly, 34 (1982), 479–502; James D. German, “The Social Utility of Wicked Self-Love: Calvinism, Capitalism, and Public Policy in Revolutionary New England,” JAH, 82 (1995), 965–98; Heclo, Christianity and American Democracy, 15–16.

  92. Nathan O. Hatch, “In Pursuit of Religious Freedom: Church, State, and People in the New Republic,” in Jack P. Greene, ed., The American Revolution: Its Character and Limits (New York, 1987), 393–94.

  93. William Gribbin, The Churches Militant: The War of 1812 and American Religion (New Haven, 1973), 102.

  94. Natalie A. Naylor, “The Theological Seminary in the Configuration of American Higher Education: The Antebellum Years,” History of Education Quarterly, 17 (1977), 20–23.

  95. On millennialism, see J. F. Maclear, “The Republic and the Millennium,” in Smith, ed., Religion of the Republic, 183–216; David E. Smith, “Millenarian Scholarship in America,” American Quarterly, 17 (1965), 535–49; Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America’s Millennial Role (Chicago, 1968); James West Davidson, The Logic of Millennial Thought: Eighteenth-Century New England (New Haven, 1977); Sacvan Bercovitch, The American Jeremiad (Madison, WI, 1978); J.F.C. Harrison, The Second Coming: Popular Millenarianism, 1780–1850 (New Brunswick, NJ, 1979); Melvin B. Endy Jr., “Just War, Holy War, and Millennialism in Revolutionary America,” WMQ, 42 (1985), 3–25; and Ruth Bloch, Visionary Republic: Millennial Themes in American Thought, 1756–1800 (Cambridge, UK, 1985).

  96. Bloch, Visionary Republic, 217; Davidson, Logic of Millennial Thought, 275–76.

  97. Jedidiah Morse, Signs of the Times: A Sermon Preached Before the Society for Propagating the Gospel . . . (Charlestown, MA, 1810), 22, 28.

  98. Elias Smith, The Whole World Governed by a Jew; or, the Government of the Second Adam, as King and Priest . . . Delivered March 4, 1805, the Evening After the Election of the President and Vice-President (Exeter, NH, 1805), 72–78; Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity, 184.

  99. Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity, 185.

  100. Timothy Dwight (1813) and Elephalet Nott (1806) in Davidson, Logic of Millennial Thought, 275, 276.

  101. Samuel Hopkins, A Treatise on the Millennium (Boston, 1793), in Wood, ed., Rising Glory of America (Boston, 1990), 43–53.

  1. William Hague, William Pitt the Younger (New York, 2005), 279; Michael Howard, War in European History (Oxford, 1976), 80–81.

  2. Arthur Herman, To Rule the Waves: How the British Navy Shaped the Modern World (New York, 2004), 332, 337; Hague, Pitt the Younger, 281, 282; Donald R. Hickey, Don’t Give Up the Ship: Myths of the War of 1812 (Urbana, IL, 2006), 7.

  3. Dumas Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 1805–1809 (Boston, 1974), 95.

  4. Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (New York, 1993), 826 n8.

  5. Curtis P. Nettles, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1915 (New York, 1962), 396, 235.

  6. Ted Widmer, Ark of the Liberties: America and the World (New York, 2008), 66.

  7. Samuel Willard Crompton, “William Gray,” American National Biography, ed. John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes (Oxford, 1999), 9: 453.

  8. Hickey, Don’t Give Up the Ship, 27.

  9. Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Berkeley, 1968), 111–12.

  10. Burton Spivak, Jefferson’s English Crisis: Commerce, Embargo, and the Republican Revolution (Charlottesville, 1979), 9; TJ to John Blair, 13 Aug. 1787, Papers of Jefferson, 12: 28.

  11. Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1990), 213.

  12. Max Farrand, ed., The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (New Ha
ven, 1911, 1937), 2: 203–4, 124.

  13. TJ, Notes on the State of Virginia, ed. William Peden (Chapel Hill, 1955), 164–65.

  14. TJ to G. K. Van Hogendorp, 13 Oct. 1785, Papers of Jefferson, 8: 633.

  15. TJ to William Jackson, 18 Feb. 1801, Papers of Jefferson, 33: 14; Spivak, Jefferson’s English Crisis, 8; Drew R. McCoy, The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (Chapel Hill, 1980), ch. 3.

  16. TJ to G. K. van Hogendorp, 13 Oct. 1785, to JM, 18 March 1785, Papers of Jefferson, 8: 633, 40.

  17. J.C.A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, 1983), 14; Nettles, Emergence of a National Economy, 232–36.

  18. McCoy, The Elusive Republic, 125.

  19. David Armitage, The Declaration of Independence: A Global History (Cambridge, MA, 2007), 61.

  20. JM, “Political Observations,” 20 April 1795, Papers of Madison, 15: 518.

  21. Lance Banning, The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology (Ithaca, 1978), 253; John Melish, Travels Through the United States of America, in the Years 1806 and 1807, and 1809, 1810, and 1811 (London, 1815), 61–62, 103.

  22. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 76; Everett Summerville Brown, ed., William Plumer’s Memorandum of Proceedings in the United States Senate, 1803–1807 (New York, 1923), 470.

  23. Wallace Hutcheon Jr., Robert Fulton: Pioneer of Undersea Warfare (Annapolis, 1981), 37.

  24. Joel Barlow, Oration, Delivered at Washington, July Fourth, 1809; at the Request of the Democratic Citizens of the District of Columbia (Washington, DC, 1809), 8.

  25. Hutcheon, Robert Fulton, 109; Robert J. Allison, Stephen Decatur: American Naval Hero, 1779–1820 (Amherst, MA, 2005), 104–5.

  26. Irving Brant, James Madison: The President, 1809–1812 (Indianapolis, 1956), 69.

  27. JM, “Universal Peace” (1792), Madison: Writings, 505.

  28. Janus, the ancient Roman god, was noted not only for two-facedness. To commemorate him the Romans always left the temple of Janus open in time of war so that the god could come to their aid. The door was only closed when Rome was at peace.

  29. TJ to JM, 28 Aug. 1789, Republic of Letters, 629; Gerald Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government (Stanford, 1970), 266; Spivak, Jefferson’s English Crisis, 6, 7.

  30. JM, “Political Observations” (1795), Papers of Madison, 15, 518–19.

  31. Frank Lambert, The Barbary Wars: American Independence in the Atlantic World (New York, 2005), 7.

  32. JM to TJ, 20 Aug. 1805, Republic of Letters, 1379–80; Lambert, Barbary Wars, 123.

  33. Lambert, Barbary Wars, 47.

  34. Robert J. Allison, ed., Narratives of Barbary Captivity: Recollections of James Leander Cathcart, Jonathan Cowdry, and William Ray (Chicago, 2007), xxxi.

  35. Lambert, Barbary Wars, 48.

  36. TJ to James Monroe, 11Nov. 1784, Papers of Jefferson, 7: 511.

  37. JA to TJ, 6 June 1786, to JA, 11 July 1786, in Lester J. Cappon, ed., The Adams-Jefferson Letters: The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and Abigail and John Adams (Chapel Hill, 1959), 1: 133–34, 141–43.

  38. Robert J. Allison, The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the Muslim World, 1776–1815 (New York, 1995), 21.

  39. Lambert, Barbary Wars, 93.

  40. TJ to JM, 28 Aug. 1801, Republic of Letters, 1194.

  41. Allison, Crescent Obscured, 29.

  42. TJ, Second Annual Message, 15Dec. 1802, in James C. Richardson, ed., A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897 (Washington, DC, 1900), 1: 331.

  43. Richard Zacks, The Pirate Coast: Thomas Jefferson, the First Marines, and the Secret Mission of 1805 (New York, 2005), 30.

  44. Lambert, Barbary Wars, 144; Allison, Crescent Obscured, 190; Fletcher Pratt, Preble’s Boys: Commodore Preble and the Birth of American Sea Power (New York, 1950), 94–95; Allison, Stephen Decatur, 45–54; Allison, ed., Narratives of Barbary Captivity, lxi.

  45. Zacks, Pirate Coast, 377. The Arabic names and words have been transliterated in the form eighteenth-century English-speakers understood them, not in the more accurate modern transliteration.

  46. [Anon.], The American in Algiers; or, The Patriot of Seventy-Six in Captivity (New York, 1797), in James G. Basker et al., eds., Early American Abolitionists: A Collection of Anti-Slavery Writings, 1760–1820 (New York, 2005), 242–61; Allison, Crescent Obscured, 92.

  47. JM to TJ, 30 Sept. 1805, Republic of Letters, 1389; Donald Hickey, “The Monroe-Pinckney Treaty of 1806: A Reappraisal,” WMQ, 44 (1987), 71.

  48. Monroe to JM, 25 Sept. 1805, in Hickey, “Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806,” 72.

  49. Perkins, Prologue to War, 137.

  50. Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York, 1997), 170–75; Armitage, Declaration of Independence, 92, 165; TJ to JM, 30 Aug. 1823, Republic of Letters, 1876.

  51. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 401.

  52. TJ to JM, 15 Aug. 1804, Republic of Letters, 1335–36.

  53. Hickey, “Monroe-Pinkney Treaty of 1806,” 86.

  54. Eugene Perry Link, Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790–1800 (New York, 1942), 137; James H. Kettner, The Development of American Citizenship, 1608–1870 (Chapel Hill, 1978), 271–73.

  55. Perkins, Prologue to War, 84–95.

  56. Catherine O’Donnell Kaplan, Men of Letters in the Early Republic: Cultivating Forums of Citizenship (Chapel Hill, 2008), 201; BR to JA, 29 June, 14Aug. 1805, Spur of Fame, 28, 31.

  57. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 69.

  58. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 110.

  59. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 73.

  60. Hickey, War of 1812, 14.

  61. Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography (New York, 1970), 863–64.

  62. Perkins, Prologue to War, 74.

  63. Hickey, War of 1812, 18.

  64. Hickey, War of 1812, 19; Perkins, Prologue to War, 2.

  65. TJ, Eighth Annual Message to Congress, 8 Nov. 1808, Jefferson: Writings, 544.

  66. Peterson, Jefferson and the New Nation, 876.

  67. TJ to JM, 26 Aug. 1807, Republic of Letters, 1492.

  68. TJ to JM, 16 Aug. 1807, Republic of Letters, 1486.

  69. JM to TJ, 20 Sept. 1807, Republic of Letters, 1499.

  70. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 464.

  71. TJ to Thomas Leiper, 21 Aug. 1807, in Ford, Writings of Jefferson, 9: 130. See Joseph I. Shulim, “Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon,” Va. Mag. of Hist. and Biog ., 60 (1960), 288–304.

  72. Perkins, Prologue to War, 187.

  73. Roger H. Brown, The Republic in Peril: 1812 (New York, 1964), 13.

  74. TJ, Message to Congress, 18 Dec. 1807, in Richardson, ed., Messages and Papers of the Presidents, 1789–1897, 1: 433.

  75. Forrest McDonald, The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson (Lawrence, KS, 1976), 107.

  76. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 469.

  77. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 486–87.

  78. Gallatin to TJ, 18 Dec. 1807, in Henry Adams, ed., The Writings of Albert Gallatin (Philadelphia, 1879), 1: 368.

  79. TJ to Robert Fulton, 21 July 1813, in Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 506.

  80. Irving Brant, James Madison: Secretary of State, 1800–1809 (Indianapolis, 1953), 402–3; Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 488–90.

  81. TJ to William Cabell, 13 March 1808, in Spivak, Jefferson’s English Crisis, 105.

  82. TJ to Maj. Joseph Eggleston, 7 March 1808, in Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 483.

  83. TJ to JM, 11 March 1808, Republic of Letters, 1515; Tucker and Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty, 211.

  84. Annals of Congress, 10th Congress, 1st session (April 1808), 2: 1960–
64; Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 517.

  85. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 517; Annals of Congress, 10th Congress, 1st session (April 1808), 2: 2849–52.

  86. TJ to Tomkins, 15 Aug. 1808, in L and B, eds., Writings of Jefferson, 12: 131–33.

  87. TJ to Captain McGregor, 26 Aug. 1808, in H. A. Washington, ed., The Writings of Thomas Jefferson (Washington, DC, 1853), 5: 356.

  88. TJ to Rodney, 24 Apr. 1808, in L and B, eds., Writings of Jefferson, 12: 36; Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 585.

  89. Joseph I. Shulim, “Thomas Jefferson Views Napoleon,” Va. Mag. of Hist. and Biog., 60 (1952), 295; TJ to Monroe, 28 Jan. 1809, in L and B, eds., Writings of Jefferson, 12: 241–42.

  90. Spivak, Jefferson’s English Crisis, 117.

  91. Malone, Jefferson the President: Second Term, 590, 591.