Big Science
Page 49
Carroll, Sean. The Particle at the End of the Universe: How the Hunt for the Higgs Boson Leads Us to the Edge of a New World. New York: Dutton, 2012.
Carson, Cathryn, and David A. Hollinger, eds. Reappraising Oppenheimer: Centennial Studies and Reflections. Berkeley: Office for History of Science and Technology, University of California, 2005.
Childs, Herbert. An American Genius: The Life of Ernest Orlando Lawrence. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1968.
Clark, Ronald W. Einstein: The Life and Times. New York: World Publishing, 1971.
Crelinsten, Jeffrey. Einstein’s Jury: The Race to Test Relativity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.
Cole, K. C. Something Incredibly Wonderful Happens: Frank Oppenheimer and the World He Made Up. Orlando, FL: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2009.
Compton, Arthur Holly. Atomic Quest: A Personal Narrative. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.
Conant, James B. My Several Lives: Memoirs of a Social Inventor. New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
Conant, Jennet. Tuxedo Park: A Wall Street Tycoon and the Secret Palace of Science That Changed the Course of World War II. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2002.
Davis, Nuel Pharr. Lawrence & Oppenheimer. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968.
Dean, Gordon E. Forging the Atomic Shield: Excerpts from the Office Diary of Gordon E. Dean. Edited by Roger M. Anders. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987.
Divine, Robert A. Blowing on the Wind: The Nuclear Test Ban Debate, 1954–1960. New York: Oxford University Press, 1978.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. The White House Years: Waging Peace, 1956–1961. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.
Eve, Arthur S. Rutherford: Being the Life and Letters of the Rt. Hon. Lord Rutherford, O.M. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1939.
Fosdick, Raymond Blaine. The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952.
Galbraith, John Kenneth. The Great Crash, 1929. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1988.
Galison, Peter, and Bruce Hevly, eds. Big Science: The Growth of Large-scale Research. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1992.
Gardner, David P. The California Oath Controversy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.
Goldsmith, Maurice. Frederic Joliot-Curie. London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1977.
Grant, James. Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983.
Greenberg, Daniel S. The Politics of Pure Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Groves, Leslie R. Now It Can Be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project. New York: Harper & Row, 1962.
Guerlac, Henry E. Radar in World War II. Los Angeles: American Institute of Physics, 1987.
Hagerty, James C. The Diary of James C. Hagerty: Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–1955. Edited by Robert H. Ferrell. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983.
Hansen, Chuck. The Swords of Armageddon, vol. 4: The Development of U.S. Nuclear Weapons. Sunnyvale, CA: Chukelea Publications, 1995.
Heilbron, J. L., and Robert W. Seidel. Lawrence and His Laboratory: A History of the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, vol. 1. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Hendry, John, ed. Cambridge Physics in the Thirties. Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger, 1984.
Herken, Gregg. Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller. New York: Henry Holt, 2002.
Hershberg, James G. James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1993.
Hewlett, Richard G., and Oscar E. Anderson Jr. The New World: A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, vol. 1: 1939/1946. Washington, DC: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1962.
Hewlett, Richard G., and Francis Duncan. Atomic Shield: A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, vol. 2: 1947/1952. Washington, DC: U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, 1972.
Hewlett, Richard G. Nuclear Navy, 1946–1962. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974.
Hewlett, Richard G., and Jack M. Holl. Atoms for Peace and War, 1953–1961: Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.
Hoffman, Darleane C., Albert Ghiorso, and Glenn T. Seaborg. The Transuranium People: The Inside Story. London: Imperial College Press, 2000.
Holton, Gerald, ed. The Twentieth-Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas. New York: W. W. Norton, 1970.
Josephson, Paul R. Physics and Politics in Revolutionary Russia. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
Kamen, Martin D. Radiant Science, Dark Politics: A Memoir of the Nuclear Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
Kelly, Cynthia C., ed. Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project: Insights into J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Father of the Atomic Bomb.” (Record of a symposium on Oppenheimer and the Manhattan Project, June 26, 2004, Los Alamos, New Mexico, Atomic Heritage Foundation.) Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific Publishing, 2006.
Kennedy, David M. Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Kevles, Daniel J. The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977.
Lilienthal, David E. The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, vol. 1: The TVA Years 1939–1945. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.
———. The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, vol. 2: The Atomic Energy Years 1945–1950. New York: Harper & Row, 1964.
———. The Journals of David E. Lilienthal, vol. 3: The Road to Change, 1955–1959. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
Livingston, M. Stanley. Particle Accelerators: A Brief History. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
———, ed. The Development of High-Energy Accelerators. New York: Dover Publications, 1966.
Manchester, William. The Glory and the Dream: A Narrative History of America 1932–1972. Boston: Little, Brown, 1974.
Nichols, K. D. The Road to Trinity: A Personal Account of How America’s Nuclear Policies Were Made. New York: William Morrow, 1987.
Oliphant, Mark. Rutherford: Recollections of the Cambridge Days. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publishing, 1972.
Pais, Abraham, and Robert P. Crease. J. Robert Oppenheimer: A Life. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.
Panofsky, Wolfgang K. H. Panofsky on Physics, Politics, and Peace: Pief Remembers. New York: Springer, 2007.
Pfau, Richard. No Sacrifice Too Great: The Life of Lewis L. Strauss. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1984.
Regis, Ed. Who Got Einstein’s Office? Eccentricity and Genius at the Institute for Advanced Study. New York: Perseus Books, 1987.
Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.
———. Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995.
Rigden, John S. Rabi: Scientist and Citizen. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano. F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, vol. 3: 1928–1945. Edited by Elliott Roosevelt. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1950.
Seaborg, Glenn T. Nuclear Milestones: A Collection of Speeches. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1972.
———. The Plutonium Story: The Journals of Professor Glenn T. Seaborg, 1939–1946. Edited and annotated by Ronald L. Kathren, Jerry B. Gough, and Gary T. Benefiel. Columbus, OH: Battelle Press, 1994.
———, with Eric Seaborg. Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2001.
Seabrook, William B. Dr. Wood, Modern Wizard of the Laboratory: The Story of an American Small Boy Who Became the Most Daring and Original Experimental Physicist of Our Day—But Never Grew Up. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1941.
Segrè, Emilio. Enrico Fermi, Physicist. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972.
———. A Mind Always in Motion: The Autobiogr
aphy of Emilio Segrè. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993.
Serber, Robert. The Los Alamos Primer: The First Lectures on How to Build an Atomic Bomb. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992.
———, with Robert P. Crease. Peace & War: Reminiscences of a Life on the Frontiers of Science. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
Sherwin, Martin J. A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and Its Legacies. 3rd ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2003.
Smith, Alice Kimball. A Peril and a Hope: The Scientists’ Movement in America, 1945–1947. Rev. ed. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971.
———, and Charles Weiner, eds. Robert Oppenheimer: Letters and Recollections. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980.
Smith, Richard Norton. The Colonel: The Life and Legend of Robert R. McCormick. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997.
Snow, C. P. Variety of Men. New York: Scribner, 1967.
Steinberger, Jack, Learning About Particles: 50 Privileged Years. New York: Springer, 2005.
Strauss, Lewis L. Men and Decisions. Garden City: Doubleday, 1962.
Stuewer, Roger H., ed. Nuclear Physics in Retrospect: Proceedings of a Symposium on the 1930’s. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1979.
Truman, Harry S. 1945: Year of Decisions. New York: New American Library, 1955.
Weart, Spencer R., and Melba Phillips, eds. History of Physics: Readings from Physics Today. New York: American Institute of Physics, 1985.
Weiner, Charles, ed. Exploring the History of Nuclear Physics: Proceedings of the American Institute of Physics on the History of Nuclear Physics, 1967 and 1969. New York: American Institute of Physics, 1972.
York, Herbert F. The Advisors: Oppenheimer, Teller, and the Superbomb. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1976.
———. Making Weapons, Talking Peace: A Physicist’s Odyssey from Hiroshima to Geneva. New York: Basic Books, 1987.
Notes
* * *
Abbreviations
AIP
Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD
BANC
Bancroft Library Collections, University of California, Berkeley
EOLP
Ernest O. Lawrence Papers, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
FRUS
Foreign Relations of the United States
HCP
Materials Assembled for a Biography of Ernest O. Lawrence (Herbert Childs Papers), Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley
IMJRO
In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Transcript of Hearing before Personnel Security Board: US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1954
LBNL
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
LOC
Library of Congress
NYT
New York Times
OH
Oral history
RF
Rockefeller Foundation Archives
Introduction: Creation and Destruction
When the presentation ended: Carroll, The Particle at the End of the Universe: (New York: Dutton, 2012), p. 187.
“It is almost as hard”: Robert R. Wilson, “My Fight Against Team Research,” in Twentieth-Century Sciences, Holton (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972), p. 468.
“The first to disintegrate”: Stuewer, Nuclear Physics in Retrospect, p. 107.
“haggard, nervous”: “Science: Einstein’s Field Theory,” Time, February 18, 1929.
“Mathematician Einstein”: “Science: He Is Worth It,” Time, December 22, 1930.
“easy to talk to”: Bruce Bliven, “New Miracles of Atomic Research,” New Republic, June 16, 1941, pp. 818–20.
The term Big Science was coined: Alvin M. Weinberg, “Impact of Large-Scale Science on the United States,” Science 134, no. 3473 (July 21, 1961): pp. 161–64.
“The logistics of keeping”: Alvin M. Weinberg, “Scientific Teams and Scientific Laboratories,” in Twentieth-Century Sciences, Holton, p. 430.
“We simply do not know”: Peter Galison, “The Many Faces of Big Science,” in Galison and Hevly, Big Science, p. 7.
“physicists, mathematicians, chemists”: Weinberg, “Scientific Teams and Scientific Laboratories,” p. 427.
“abnormal competitive element”: Karl T. Compton to M.C. Winternitz, November 24, 1941, EOLP. Winternitz was then a member of the government’s wartime Committee on Medical Research, and Compton’s letter was in the nature of an appeal for a federal contract.
“Could the theory”: Wigner, E., “The Limits of Science,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 94, no. 5, October 1950.
“spending their time”: Galison and Hevly, Big Science, p. 4.
“The new cyclotron”: 1940 Annual Report, The Rockefeller Foundation, p. 43.
Chapter One: A Heroic Time
“a big, rather clumsy”: Snow, Variety of Men, p. 2.
“Rutherford was an artist”: Quoted in Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, p. 45.
“uranium radiation”: Rutherford, “Uranium Radiation and the Electrical Conduction Produced by It,” Philosophical Magazine 40, no. 109 (January 1899): pp. 109-163.
“I was brought up”: Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, p. 47.
But a tiny number: Eve, Arthur S., “Modern Views on the Constitution of the Atom,” Science 40, no. 1021 (July 24, 1914): pp. 115–21.
“uncarpeted floor boards”: Oliphant, Rutherford, p. 19, cited in Rhodes, Making of the Atomic Bomb, p. 134.
“bad taste”: Weiner, Exploring the History of Nuclear Physics, p. 177.
Its entire annual budget: The figure is from Chadwick, James, “Some Personal Notes on the Search for the Neutron,” 10th International Congress of History of Science, Cornell University, 1962.
“We must conclude”: Rutherford, “Collisions of Alpha Particles with Light Atoms,” The Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 37, no. 22 (1919): p. 537.
“a heroic time”: Quoted in Kevles, The Physicists, p. 163.
“the whole system”: See Forman, Paul, “The Doublet Riddle and Atomic Physics circa 1924,” Isis 59, no. 2 (Summer 1968): pp. 156–74.
“decidedly confused”: Kevles, The Physicists, p. 162.
“so desperate”: Chadwick, “Some Personal Notes.”
“Revolution in Science”: For Eddington and his campaign, see Sponsel, Alistair, “Constructing a ‘Revolution in Science’,” The British Journal for the History of Science 35, no. 4 (December 2002): pp. 439–67.
“Mme. Curie Plans”: New York Times, May 12, 1921; for retraction, see New York Times, May 13, 1921.
“endeavoring, with some initial success”: Eve, Arthur S., “Modern Views.”
“It is my opinion”: Clark, Einstein: Life and Times, p. 163.
“The very strange situation”: interview of Werner Heisenberg by Thomas S. Kuhn, February 25, 1963, AIP.
By Rutherford’s reckoning: Rutherford, “Nuclear Constitution of Atoms,” Bakerian Lecture, June 3, 1920.
No one could explain: See Kevles, The Physicists, p. 224.
“much deformed”: Rutherford, “Nuclear Constitution of Atoms.”
“He expounded”: Chadwick, “Some Personal Notes.”
“What we require”: Rutherford, February 28, 1930, cited in Eve, Rutherford, p. 338.
“There appears to be”: “Address of the president, Sir Ernest Rutherford, O.M., at the Anniversary Meeting,” November 30, 1927, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 117, no. 777 (January 2, 1928): pp. 300-316.
When it arrived: Heilbron and Seidel, Lawrence and His Laboratory, p. 50.
rather than fitting: C. C. Lauritsen and R.D. Bennett, “A New High Potential X-Ray Tube,” Physical Review 32 (November 30, 1928): p. 850.
“long sinuous snarling arc”: McMillan, “Early History of Particle Accelerators” in Stuewer, Nuclear Physics in Retrospect, p. 115.
“All of us youngsters”: Tuve in Weiner, Exp
loring the History of Nuclear Physics, p. 27.
“albatross”: Tuve to McMillan, April 21, 1977, ibid., p. 135.
Chapter Two: South Dakota Boy
“Most of us”: Livingston in Weiner, Exploring the History of Nuclear Physics, p. 33.
Carl taught: Childs, American Genius, p. 26
“If a man doesn’t”: John Lawrence OH.
“born grown up”: Margaret (Lawrence) Casady to Herbert Childs, April 15, 1963, HCP.
A family yarn: Mabel Blumer recollection, HCP; see also Childs, American Genius, pp. 28–29.
one day he took: Childs, American Genius, p. 34.
Merle’s through diligent: Interview of Merle Tuve by Charles Weiner, March 30, 1967, AIP.
Ernest and Merle dug: Tuve recollections, HCP; Tuve, AIP.
“When the president says”: Tuve recollections, HCP.
“the wickedness”: Childs, American Genius, p. 46.
D in electricity and magnetism: See John Lawrence OH, BANC.
“There’s a fellow”: John Lawrence OH, BANC.
theory of relativity: On the Swann-Einstein letters, see Hagar, Amit, “Length Matters: The Einstein-Swann Correspondence,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 39, no. 3 (2008): pp. 532–56.
Swann had crossed: See “W. F. G. Swann” (obituary), Physics Today 15, no. 4 (April 1962): p. 106.
“I like to think”: W. F. G. Swann, “The Teaching of Physics,” American Journal of Physics 19 (March 1951): pp. 182–87.
“Swann was unhappy”: Loeb to Childs, November 15, 1960, HCP.
“Every two years”: Childs, American Genius, p. 65.
Swann delivered: Ernest Lawrence, “The charging effect produced by the rotation of a prolate iron spheroid in a uniform magnetic field,” Philosophical Magazine 47 (May 1924): pp. 842–47.
“He was different”: Childs, American Genius, p. 89.