Big Science
Page 54
“admiration and respect”: Ibid.
“Every time I have found”: IMJRO, p. 802.
“one of two men”: Ibid., p. 805.
“I think the reason”: Ibid., p. 787.
“because he expressed”: Ibid., p. 567.
“I am quite sure”: Ibid., pp. 910–11.
“I remember driving”: Ibid., p. 969.
“I think there was”: Oppenheimer recollections, HCP.
“a man so conceited”: Neylan recollections, HCP.
“How does this”: Brady recollections, HCP.
Chapter Twenty: The Return of Small Science
“The work of”: “Statement by the Atomic Energy Commission,” June 29, 1954, p. 6, copy in EOLP.
“It was not likely”: Hewlett and Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, p. 112.
“not prepared”: For the libel suit and Lawrence’s role, see Kamen, Radiant Science, Dark Politics, pp. 278–89.
“I knew that”: Neylan recollections, HCP.
“an old wreck”: Childs, American Genius, p. 377.
“The remodeling was”: Margaret (Lawrence) Casady to Herbert Childs, April 15, 1963, HCP.
The very idea: Alvarez, Adventures, p. 165.
“Ed and I”: Ibid., p. 166.
“a place where”: Molly Lawrence recollections, HCP.
“sense of urgency”: Don Gow recollections, HCP.
On one occasion: Childs, American Genius, p. 450.
Dr. John Sherrick: Casady to Childs.
Soon after taking office: Hewlett and Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, pp. 261–62.
Chapter Twenty-one: The “Clean Bomb”
Ernest’s colitis recurred: Childs, American Genius, p. 501.
“We’re still in business!”: Herken, p. 301.
“Exactly what is”: Francis, “Warhead Politics.”
fallout was detected: Hewlett and Holl, p. 290.
“far below the levels”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 12.
“Lewis, I wouldn’t”: Hagerty, Diary of James C. Hagerty, p. 36.
“working philosophy”: York, Making Weapons, p. 75.
“That certainly expresses”: Notes of Stassen-Eisenhower conference, March 22, 1955, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1955–1957, vol. 20, p. 61. [Henceforth FRUS.]
“experienced men”: Ibid., p. 60.
of the Lawrence panel’s twelve: Herken, p. 305.
“Edward was always”: York, Making Weapons, p. 82.
“All that the man”: Appleby, Eisenhower and Arms Control, 1953–1961, p. 148.
His estimate came: “Memorandum of Discussion at the 271st Meeting of the National Security Council, December 22, 1955,” FRUS, 1955–1957, Vol. 20, pp. 250–55.
The proposal won him: Hewlett and Holl, p. 334.
“mandatory to the defense”: Dunning, Gordon M., “Effects of Nuclear Weapons Testing,” The Scientific Monthly 81, no. 6 (December 1955): pp. 265–70.
“It is possible”: See Libby, Willard F., “Radioactive Strontium Fallout,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 42, no. 6 (June 1956): pp. 365–90.
“God in His almighty”: Hewlett and Holl, p. 337.
“not to make a bigger”: Eisenhower press conference, April 25, 1956, at www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=10787 [accessed August 14, 2013].
“maximum effect”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 82.
“Thus the current”: Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 1956, p. 263.
“The superbomb can be”: Lapp, Ralph E., “The ‘Humanitarian’ H-Bomb,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 1956.
The study concluded: “The Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation,” National Academy of Sciences, 1956.
“The concept of a safe rate”: Ibid., p. 16.
“uncontrollable forces”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 104.
“no sure method”: New York Times, November 6, 1956.
“half of our”: Francis, “Warhead Politics,” p. 113.
“a catastrophe”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 122.
The conversation inevitably: Hewlett and Holl, Atoms for Peace and War, p. 398.
“the gleam in the scientists’ ”: Ibid., p. 399.
“If we know”: FRUS 1955–1957, vol. 20, p. 641.
“to produce nuclear”: New York Times, June 25, 1957.
“The irony of this”: Lilienthal, Road to Change, p. 204 (journal entry of June 25, 1957).
“Madison Avenue–type”: Ibid., p. 239 (journal entry of May 5, 1958).
“an unequivocal yes”: Eisenhower press conference, June 26, 1957, at www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=10822 [accessed August 16, 2013].
“very lucky breaks”: Starbird to Strauss, July 11, 1957, cited in Hansen, Swords of Armageddon, vol. 4, p. 293.
“What an ‘absolutely clean’ ”: Newsweek, July 8, 1957, cited in Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 151.
“Everything has worked”: Hansen, Swords of Armageddon, vol. 4, p. 287.
“You may detect”: Ibid.
“I mark off”: Pfau, No Sacrifice Too Great, p. 204.
Chapter Twenty-two: Element 103
“a silly bauble”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 170.
“a matter of self interest”: Diary entry by the president, October 29, 1957, FRUS, 1955–1957, vol. 20, pp. 754–55. See also Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb, p. 316.
“my ‘wizard’ ”: Eisenhower, White House Years, p. 224.
The last hurrah: Minutes of the NSC meeting of January 6, 1958, are at FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. III, pp. 533–45.
“weigh very carefully”: Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower, January 22, 1958, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 3, p. 553.
at a White House meeting: Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower, March 24, 1958, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 3, pp. 567–72.
“an extremely difficult position”: Ibid.
“Mankind insists”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 202.
“There is far more”: Hansen, Swords of Armageddon, vol. 4, p. 340.
“The blunt fact”: Bradbury to Starbird, January 8, 1958, in Hansen, Swords of Armageddon, vol. 4, pp. 335–37.
“fit as a fiddle”: Childs, American Genius, p. 518.
“would be greatly”: Report by the President’s Science Advisory Committee, April 11, 1958, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 3, p. 598.
“had never been”: Memorandum of Conference with President Eisenhower, April 17, 1958, FRUS, 1958–1960, vol. 3, p. 604.
“We helped start”: Childs, American Genius, p. 523.
“practically lived together”: Bacher recollections, HCP.
“a purely technical scientific”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 216.
It did not help: Ibid., p. 217.
“We were going”: Bacher recollections, HCP.
a “shaggy man”: Hewlett and Holl, Atoms in Peace and War, p. 540.
“I wish I’d taken”: Molly Lawrence recollections, HCP.
“Molly, I’m ready”: Ibid.
“A man of Ernest’s”: Cooksey to Lauriston Marshall, September 25, 1958, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory archives.
“the one touch”: Lilienthal, Road to Change, p. 307 (journal entry of January 31, 1959).
“satisfactory progress”: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 229. See also Hewlett and Holl, p. 546.
Since Hiroshima: Divine, Blowing on the Wind, p. 238.
“the only person”: Seaborg, Adventures in the Atomic Age, p. 144.
Epilogue: The Twilight of Big Science?
“Manlike creatures”: Clark Kerr, “Tribute to Professor Ernest O. Lawrence,” August 30, 1958, copy in HCP.
“a mighty symbol”: “President’s Review,” The Rockefeller Foundation Annual Report 1940.
“He will always”: Alvarez, Luis W., “Ernest Orlando Lawrence, 1901–1958, A Biographical Memoir,” National Academy of Sciences, 1970.
“where physicists”: Adams, John B., address, Proceeding
s of the Celebration of the 50th Anniversary of the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, October 1981, LBNL.
“tended to shun”: Galison, Peter, “The Many Faces of Big Science,” in Galison and Hevly, Big Science.
“We simply do not”: Panofsky in Galison and Hevly, Big Science, p. 7.
“A 20-year honeymoon”: Abelson, “National Science Policy,” Science, January 28, 1966.
“basic science was worth”: Price, Don K., “Federal money and University Research,” Science, January 21, 1966.
“The President’s Science Advisor”: Sanders, Ralph, “The Autumn of Power: The Scientist in the Political Establishment,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, October 1966.
federal government spending: Ibid.
Mansfield Amendment: See Kevles, The Physicists, p. 414.
“a generation of people”: Klaw, Spencer, “Letter from MIT,” Harper’s, May 1972
“or heart disease, or stroke”: Fischer, John, “The Editor’s Easy Chair,” Harpers, September 1966.
“The great ideas”: Ibid.
“the loss will not”: Sheldon L. Glashow, and Leon M. Lederman, “The SSC: A Machine for the Nineties,” Physics Today, March 1985. See also Kevles, The Physicists, p. xix.
“expensive irrelevance”: New York Times, July 16, 1967, cited in Kevles, The Physicists, p. xi.
“He said that he”: Weinberg, Steven, “The Crisis of Big Science,” New York Review of Books, May 10, 2012.
In the first decades: Science Resources Statistics Info Brief, National Science Foundation, January 2010.
“I heard that”: East Bay Express, March 23, 1984.
Index
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A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.
Abelson, Philip, 182, 221, 276, 436
Aberdeen Chronograph, 193–94
Aberdeen Proving Grounds, 193, 195, 219
academia:
anti-Semitism in, 100
traditional structure of, 59, 434–35
accelerators:
skepticism about need for more powerful, 435–36
see also cyclotrons; Large Hadron Collider; linear accelerators
Acheson, Dean, 304, 350
Adams, John Bertram, 432, 434
Adamson, Keith, 218
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 437
Aebersold, Paul, 130, 163, 185–86
AEC Oppenheimer hearing, 377–78, 379–86, 387, 390
criticism of, 388
transcript of Rolander’s interview with EOL inserted into, 384–85
Air Force, U.S., 428
Akeley, Carl, 33
Akeley, Lewis Ellsworth, 33, 299
Alamogordo, N.Mex., 280, 292
Allen, Alexander, 173, 214, 250
Allies, 4
Allis-Chalmers Manufacturing Company, 267–68, 274, 275
Alpha II, 275
alpha particles, 20, 49, 70, 107, 124, 183, 323
alpha radiation (helium nuclei), 17
alpha rays, 80, 123, 165
Alsop, Joseph, 349
Alsop, Stewart, 349
aluminum, 123
Alvarez, Luis, 86, 93–94, 107, 121, 129, 145, 157, 161, 165, 166, 180, 183, 210, 214, 274, 305, 306, 311, 325, 334, 337, 344, 347, 354, 360, 378, 381, 390, 432
atomic bombing of Japan witnessed by, 297–98
Berkeley faculty position obtained by, 137
EOL-Compton confrontation witnessed by, 239–40
and EOL’s color TV tube, 391–92
and EOL’s refusal to testify at Oppenheimer hearing, 381–82
H-bomb program pushed by, 339–40, 349
K-capture experiments of, 166–67
on lack of time for basic scientific research, 160–61
linear accelerator of, 307, 316
Livermore site picked by, 353
Loomis and, 192, 193, 198
on Loomis’s friendship with EOL, 197
at MIT Rad Lab, 225
as MTA’s chief designer, 357
Oppenheimer testimony of, 382–84
as Rad Lab postdoc, 152–53
on Rad Lab’s collaborative-research paradigm, 130
in refusal to testify, 381–82
and search for fission neutrons, 216–17
sixty-inch cyclotron magnet designed by, 153–54
on Soviet bomb, 339
Alvarez, Walter, 129
“amateur,” use of term, 192
American Association of Scientific Workers (AASW), 233, 234
American Physical Society, 38, 98, 312
1933 meeting of, 109–10
1934 meeting of, 118
American Radium Society, Janeway Lecture of, 163
Anderson, Carl, 93, 94–95, 206
Anderson, Herbert, 313
antiprotons, 433
anti-Semitism, 100, 188, 222
Aquadag, 185, 187
Archiv für Elektrotechnik, Wideröe’s paper in, 45–46, 47, 63
Argonne National Laboratory, 282, 318
arms race, 287, 376, 442
Oppenheimer on, 376
Army Corps of Engineers, US, 259
Japanese cyclotrons destroyed by, 310–11, 314
Manhattan Engineer District of, 259–60, 305, 311, 312, 315, 321
Arneson, Gordon, 350
ARPANET, 437
artificial radioactivity, 124–26, 128
Joliets’ discovery of, 126, 127, 133, 138, 206
patent claims on, 132–35
Associated Universities, 321
Association of Los Alamos Scientists, 313
Aston, Francis, 110
Athenia, 240
sinking of, 219–20
atomic bomb, 2, 4, 181, 193, 287
in attack on Japan, 7–8, 11, 245, 268, 276, 278, 279, 286–87, 291, 297–98, 303
creation of, 209
deployment vs. demonstration debate on, 283–84, 291–92
Einstein’s letter to FDR on threat of, 217–18
EOL on decision to drop, 298–99
FDR and, 218, 232
humanitarian concerns about, 279–80, 286, 298–300, 326
MAUD Committee and, 222–23, 229–30
mortality estimates for, 289
postwar policy and, 283–84, 286
of Soviet Union, 181, 282–83, 287, 339
as transformative weapon, 299
see also hydrogen bomb
atomic bomb project, 213–15, 222, 230–31, 235–36, 241, 255–56, 263
competing separation processes in, 256–57
Groves as head of, 249, 260
in Nazi Germany, 214–15, 217, 231, 256, 277, 279
secrecy in, 215, 220, 232, 235, 249
separation of policy and scientific elements in, 232
Truman briefed on, 285–86
atomic energy:
Compton in appraising military usefulness of, 213
electricity generated by, 10–11
Rutherford’s disagreement with EOL on usefulness of, 112–13
Atomic Energy Commission (AEC), 315, 317, 325, 331, 356, 362–63, 368, 375–76, 387
accelerator budget of, 322
Atoms for Peace program of, 396, 423
expanded research budget of, 345–46
General Advisory Committee (GAC) of, see General Advisory Committee
growing unhappiness with MTA of, 359–60
H-bomb project and, 340–41
Lilenthal as chairman of, 317–18
Livermore commitment of, 372–73
Manhattan District’s atomic labs acquired by, 315, 321
mission statement of, 367
Oppenheimer security clearance hearing of, see AEC Oppenheimer hearing
; Oppenheimer’s security clearance revoked by, 387–88, 417
Personnel Security Boards of, 326–29, 379–80
scientists’ break with, 388
secrecy policy at, 370
Serber investigated by, 328–29
Strauss’s departure from, 418
atomic pile, 8, 215, 223, 237, 239, 256, 258, 264, 276–77, 354
see also chain reactions
atoms, 49
Bohr’s model of, 24–25
nucleus of, see nucleus
plum pudding model of, 16, 17
Rutherford’s model of, 24
splitting of, see nuclear fission
Atoms for Peace program, 396, 423
Augustana Academy, 29
Austin, Lord, 121
Bacher, Robert, 87, 166, 315, 422, 423, 424, 427
Baer, Maxie, 353
Bainbridge, Kenneth, 173
Balboa Island, 390–91, 422–23
Bard, Ralph, 290
Bartol Research Institute, 43, 173
Barton, Henry, 111–12
“beam hunting,” 180
Beams, Jesse, 43, 129, 257–58
on EOL’s inexhaustible energy, 37–38
light experiment of EOL and, 36–37
1927 European trip of, 41–42
Becquerel, Henri, 16, 17
Bell Laboratories, 173
Berkeley, Calif., 2
berkelium (element 97), 429
Berlin, Germany, 42
Berlin, University of, 26
beryllium, 107, 108, 111, 128
Beta calutrons, 275
beta decay, 166
beta rays (electrons), 17, 27
Bethe, Hans, 87, 199, 305, 417
“bible” of, 166
H-bomb opposed by, 416
H-bomb project doubts of, 344–45
limits on cyclotron power theorized by, 169–70
Bevatron accelerator, 321–22, 324, 356, 394, 433
Bhagavad Gita, 295, 477n
Big Science, 2, 9, 54, 69, 210, 242, 288, 316, 429
business funding of, 9–10, 210, 440
coining of term, 7, 433
collaborative-research paradigm in, 81, 84, 129–30, 133, 135, 161, 180, 186, 243
cost effectiveness of, 119
cost of, 135, 360
as double-edged sword, 388
doubts about, 11–12, 439
EOL as creator of, 2–3, 8, 432
EOL’s Nobel Prize as validation of, 186–87, 200
government funding of, 9, 39, 76, 210, 240–41, 249, 253, 360, 434, 436, 437, 440