Why do Clocks run clockwise?

by David Feldman

  Submitted by Greg Cox, of San Rafael, California.

  140 / DAVID FELDMAN

  What’s the Difference Between an X-Rated Movie and an XXX-Rated Movie? Why Isn’t There an

  “XX” Rating?

  The Motion Picture Association of America issues the movie ratings you see in the newspaper. Motion picture companies are under no legal obligation to have their movies rated, but they are not allowed to affix their own rating. In order to obtain a G, PG, PG-13 or R

  rating, a fee must be paid to the MPAA. An MPAA committee views each film and issues an edict that sets the rating, subject to appeal.

  None of the major film companies is willing to bypass the MPAA ratings. Since the rating codes were instituted in the 1960s, there has actually been much less pressure on the studios to reduce violence and sexual content. Also, some newspapers refuse to accept advertising for non-MPAA-rated movies, and most film executives feel that the rating system has worked reasonably well as a warning device for concerned parents.

  The X-rating was originally conceived as the designation for any movie suitable only for adults, regardless of genre. Such critics’ favorites as the Best Picture Oscar-winning Midnight Cowboy were rated X because of their mature subject matter, and A Clockwork Orange was rated X for its violence and intensity.

  With only a few other exceptions, nonpornographic X-rated movies have bombed at the box office. Any film that catered to adults automatically excluded many of the most rabid moviego-ers—teenagers. The advertisements for so-called “adult films” gladly trumpeted their X ratings: how better to prove the salaciousness of a movie than by prohibiting children from viewing it? Even better, MPAA rules allowed companies to rate their films X without the association’s certification, a policy that enabled low-budget film companies to nab an X rating without paying the fee of nearly a thousand dollars. As the few mainstream X-rated films were overwhelmed by the multitude of X-

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  rated porn movies, major film companies like Paramount and Columbia refused to release any X-rated movies, for X had become synonymous with smut.

  The producers of adult films had the opposite problem. Here they were, trying to purvey their X-rated product, when prestigious films like Midnight Cowboy were sullying the reputation of the adults-only rating by containing redeeming social value.

  David F. Friedman, board chairman of the Adult Film Association of America, told us that the XXX rating was actually started as a joke, to distinguish “straight films,” with mature content, from por-nography. There is not now and has never been a formal XXX rating for movies; it has always been a marketing ploy adopted by film distributors and/or movie exhibitors.

  Is there any difference between an X-and an XXX-rated movie?

  According to Friedman, no. Although some customers might believe that an XXX-rated movie is “harder” than the simple X, this has never been the case. Many pornographic films are made in several versions: hard-core X-rated; a “soft” X, used for localities where hardcore is banned; a “cable” version, a doctored once-explicit version; and an expurgated R-rated version, designed for playoffs in nonporno theaters, such as drive-ins. Whether or not any of these versions of a pornographic movie is billed as X or XXX is more dependent on the whims of the producer or the theater management than on the content of the movie.

  Why no XX rating? Who knows? Once someone started the XXX, who was going to say that their movie wasn’t quite as sexy? X-inflation is likely to remain rampant as long as there are pornographic theaters.

  Submitted by Richard Rosberger, of Washington, D.C. Thanks also to: Curtis Kelly, of Chicago, Illinois, and Thomas Cunningham, of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

  142 / DAVID FELDMAN

  Where Does a New Speed Limit Begin? Does It Start at the Speed Limit Sign, at Some Point Beyond the Sign, or Where the Sign Becomes Clearly Visible?

  If a speed limit drops from fifty-five miles per hour to thirty-five miles per hour, isn’t it clearly legal to drive at fifty-five miles per hour until you pass the thirty-five miles per hour sign? But how are we expected to drop twenty miles per hour instantaneously? Is there a grace period, a distinct length of road on which we are exempt from the new speed limit?

  No such luck. The speed-limit sign is posted precisely where the new limit takes effect. How you slow down to the new speed is your business, and your problem.

  Of course, traffic laws are up to the individual states, but most legislatures rely on the provisions of the federal government’s Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. And the manual is un-ambiguous: “Speed limit signs, indicating speed limits for which posting is required by law, shall be located at the points of change from one speed limit to another…. At the end of the section to which a speed limit applies, a Speed Limit sign showing the next speed limit shall be erected.” The one provision intended to help drivers slow down before a new speed limit is the “Reduced Speed Ahead”

  sign. These are placed primarily in rural areas where drops in speed limits can easily reach twenty to thirty-five miles per hour. But these warning signs must be followed by a speed-limit sign that marks precisely where the altered speed limit applies.

  Submitted by Glenn Worthman, of Palo Alto, California.

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  If the National Speed Limit is 55 Miles per Hour, Why Do Speedometers Go up to 85 Miles per Hour and Higher?

  The Department of Transportation mandated the maximum speedometer reading effective September 1, 1982. The rule read: No speedometer shall have graduations or numerical values for speeds greater than 140/km/h and 85 mph and shall not otherwise indicate such speeds. Each speedometer shall include “55”

  in the mph scale. Each speedometer, other than an electronic digital speedometer, shall highlight the number 55 or otherwise highlight the point at which the indicated vehicle speed equals 55 mph.

  Benn Dunn, manager of product technical communications for American Motors, says that the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration offered two reasons for the 85 mile per hour limit.

  First, the limit would allow speedometer dials to be more precisely graduated and more readable in the range of reasonable driving ranges. Second, the upper limit presumably “reduced the temptation for immature drivers to test the upper speeds of their vehicles on public roads.”

  The regulation simply didn’t work. Although there are no current federal regulations concerning what speeds should be shown on speedometers, all of the big four automakers continue, voluntarily, to maintain 85 miles per hour as the maximum speed indication on the analogue speedometers of most of their cars. Mr. Dunn predicted, however, that we will soon begin to see higher markings on analogue speedometers.

  On their high-performance cars, U.S. automakers all exceed the 85 mile per hour standard. Obviously, the auto companies are not trying to encourage reckless driving, but the speedometer with a 125

  mile per hour capacity is an effective marketing ploy. A car with a high maximum reading sends a message to the consumer that the car must be capable of attaining these speeds.

  144 / DAVID FELDMAN

  The automakers give three main reasons why it is important to maintain indications beyond the federal speed limit: 1. As P. M. Preuss, of Ford Motor Company, explained it, “Car speedometers are labeled beyond 55 mile per hour speeds because people drive in excess of 55 miles per hour. Obviously, some of these drivers are reckless, but by no means all. Automakers are under no obligation to produce cars that can go only 55 miles per hour; drivers who exceed the legal limit should be aware of how fast they are going.” Law-abiding citizens exceed the speed limit under many circumstances. Passing maneuvers often require bursts of speed for brief periods of time. Drivers approaching a steep upgrade, reasonably enough, want to gather a head of steam before the climb. And drivers entering expressways must often speed up for their own and others’ protection.

  2. Speed limits can change. Particularly in rur
al areas, the 55 mile per hour limit has never been accepted and has been viewed as an affront to basic liberties.

  3. Automobile engineers need speedometers with more generous indications. Many of the Procedures they use to assess the safety and performance of cars, including tire, brake, and component tests, are carried out at speeds greater than 55 miles per hour.

  Soon, analogue speedometers will probably give way to electronic speedometers. At present, electronic models are in short supply, so they are primarily a luxury option. Electronic speedometers feature continuous digital readouts, usually in two mile per hour increments, that register accurately whatever speed the car is traveling, regardless of the speed limit.

  Submitted by Daniel C. Papcke, of Lakewood, Ohio.

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  What Is the Purpose of Public and Underarm Hair, the Only Body Hair That Men and Women Share in Abundance?

  Even though humans have lost most of their fur, pubic hair and underarm hair remain in both sexes (at least, in most of the world—the majority of American women shave their armpits, for some reason we at Imponderables are still trying to ascertain). Any logical reason for this?

  The most popular explanation is that pubic hair and armpit hair both trap the milky fluid secreted by the sebaceous glands. When the secretion is broken down by bacteria, a strong odor that acts as an aphrodisiac is generated. Isn’t it ironic, then, that deodorants and antiperspirants are trumpeted for their ability to mask offensive odors? We are so worried about carrying bad smells that we neglect to realize that body odor can attract others. Perhaps deodorants should be marketed for people who want to get rid of the opposite sex.

  Zoologists offer another explanation for public hair. Many animals, especially primates, have striking visual features around their genitals to help attract potential mates (have you seen a baboon lately?).

  The wide patch of public hair on an otherwise naked skin might have remained on humans for the very same reason.

  Submitted by Barbara and Celeste Hoggan, of El Paso, Texas.

  146 / DAVID FELDMAN

  Why Do Construction Crews Put Pine Trees on Top of Buildings They Are Working On?

  The tree atop buildings (and bridges) under construction is known as the “topping out” tree and celebrates the completion of the basic skeleton of the structure. In skyscrapers, an evergreen is attached to the top beam as it is hoisted, a signal that the building has reached its final height. For some builders, the evergreen symbolizes that none of the construction crew died in the effort. For others, the tree is a talisman for good luck and prosperity for the future occupants of the building.

  While the topping-out ceremony of today is often accompanied by a celebration, complete with boring speeches by local politicians and the popping of flashbulbs, the precursors of topping out are ancient: Like many of our benign rituals, topping-WHY DO CLOCKS RUN CLOCKWISE? / 147

  out celebrations stem from ancient superstitions. The Romans marked the completion of the Pons Sublicius over the Tiber River in 621 B.C. by throwing some humans into the river as a sacrifice to the gods. While we now launch ships by banging them with champagne bottles, a different liquid—human blood—was used in earlier times. In ancient China, the ridgepoles of new buildings were smeared with chicken blood in an attempt to fool the gods into believing they were receiving the human counterpart. Many cultures feared that evil spirits occupied new structures, so well into the Middle Ages, priests and rabbis performed special blessings on new homes and public buildings.

  The first evidence of trees being hoisted atop buildings was in A.D. 700 in Scandinavia, when they signaled that a completion party was about to begin. Black Forest Germans celebrated the nativity of Jesus Christ with the hoisting of Christmas trees. Today, topping-out trees are still most prevalent in northern Europe, particularly Germany and the Scandinavian countries. Indeed, Scandinavia’s greatest playright, Henrik Ibsen, had his protagonist in The Master Builder meet his doom by falling while placing a topping-off wreath on one of his new buildings.

  The evergreen has been joined by the stars and stripes as a topping-off symbol in the United States. According to The Ironworker magazine, “When the last strands of cable were laid for the Brooklyn Bridge a hundred years ago, the wheel operated by Ironworkers was decorated with American flags. By 1920 ironworkers were again draping their work with American flags, this time while driving the first rivet on the Bank of Italy in San Francisco.” Flags atop buildings today signify not only the patriotism of the construction crew but also, in some cases, that the buildings was financed by public funds.

  Submitted by Robert J. Abrams, of Boston, Massachusetts.

  148 / DAVID FELDMAN

  Why Aren’t Whitewall Auto Tires as Wide as They Used to Be?

  The sole purpose of white sidewall tires is to look pretty. At one time, whitewalls were all the rage and an option that most Americans bought. A caller on a radio talk show, who posed this Imponderable, questioned why, although he paid a hefty premium for the whitewalls, he got much less white for his money than he did years ago.

  Talks with tire experts yielded two explanations. First, as whitewalls are a totally cosmetic option, their appearance is subject to the whims of fashion. Tire design, like high-fashion design, tends to follow the lead of Europeans. Porsche has evidently made a huge impact with its all black tires. Whitewalls are not particularly hip at the moment, so a flashy display of white on the sidewalls at this time is as likely to impress the opposite sex as a panoply of gold chains.

  Second, the thickness of white sidewalls has been reduced to conform to a general decrease in the thickness of tires and tire components, part of an industrywide attempt to make tires run cooler in order to meet the requirements of high speeds on interstate highways and of federal high-speed safety standards.

  The extra charge for whitewalls actually does reflect higher expenses in manufacturing them. According to Firestone Tire & Rubber Company, white rubber is slightly more expensive than black rubber per pound, but there are two other factors that increase the cost of whitewalls: extra time and steps are necessary to manufacture and finish whitewalls, and the black rubber adjacent to the white rubber must be treated to keep the white from being stained by what would be a normal migration of materials within the tire.

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  Why Do Clocks Run “Clockwise”?

  In baseball, horse racing, and most forms of skating, we are accustomed to seeing a counterclockwise movement. Is there any particular reason why clocks run “clockwise”?

  Henry Fried, one of the foremost horologists in the United States, gives a simple explanation for this Imponderable. Before the advent of clocks, we used sundials. In the northern hemisphere, the shadows rotated in the direction we now call “clockwise.” The clock hands were built to mimic the natural movements of the sun. If clocks had been invented in the southern hemisphere, Fried speculates, “clockwise” would be the opposite direction.

  Submitted by William Rogers, of St. Louis, Missouri.

  150 / DAVID FELDMAN

  On Clocks and Watches with Roman Numerals, Why Is Four Usually Noted as IIII Rather than IV?

  Watch and clock designers are given great latitude in designating numbers on timepiece faces. Some use arabic numbers, most use roman numerals, and a few use no numbers at all.

  But have you noticed that while the number nine is usually designated as “IX” on timepieces, four is almost universally designated as “IIII”? We contacted some of the biggest manufacturers of watches, and even they couldn’t pinpoint the derivation of this custom. But they sent us to our friend, Henry Fried, who swatted away this Imponderable as if it were a gnat.

  When mechanical clocks were first invented, in the fourteenth century, they were displayed in public places, usually on cathedrals.

  The faces themselves were only ornamental at first, for the early models had no hour or minute hand but merely gonged once for every hour of th
e day.

  Clocks were thus of special value to the common people, who were almost universally illiterate. Most peasants, even in Italy, could not read roman numerals, and they could not subtract. They performed calculations and told time by counting on their fingers. Four slash marks were much easier for them to contend with than “IV,”

  taking one away from five.

  Many early clocks displayed twenty-four hours rather than twelve.

  While some German clocks in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries used roman numerals to denote A.M. and arabic numbers for P.M., all-day clocks remained especially troublesome for the illiterate. So some clock designers always displayed all numbers ending with four or nine with slash marks rather than “IV” or “IX.”

  Why do clockmakers persist in using roman numerals today?

  Primarily because the touch of antiquity pleases consumers. At a time when dependable clocks and watches can be produced for less than they could decades ago, manufacturers need design elements to convince consumers to spend more. Although some WHY DO CLOCKS RUN CLOCKWISE? / 151

  argue that roman numerals are easier to read upside down and at a distance, the touch of class they connote is still their biggest selling point.

  The delicious irony, of course, is that this touch of class stems from a system designed for peasants.

  Why Are Rain Clouds Dark?

  Rain is water. Water is light in color. Rain clouds are full of water.

  Therefore, rain clouds should be light. Impeccable logic, but wrong.

  Obviously, there are always water particles in clouds. But when the particles of water are small, they reflect light and are perceived as white. When water particles become large enough to form rain-drops, however, they absorb light and appear dark to us below.