Caesar: Life of a Colossus

by Adrian Goldsworthy

  2 For the importance of the Liberalia festival see Ovid, Fasti 3. 771-788; on the sacrifice to Iuventus see Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4. 15. 5; on the ceremonies associated with adopting the toga virilis in general see B. Rawson, Children and Childhood in Roman Italy (2003), pp. 142-144.

  3 Suetonius, Caesar 1.1; for the sudden death of Caesar's father see Pliny, Natural History 7. 181; on assuming the toga virilis see H. Marrou, A History of Education in Antiquity (1956), p. 233, A. Gwynn, Roman Education: From Cicero to Quintilian (1926), 16, and B. Rawson, `The Roman Family', in B. Rawson (ed.), The Family in Ancient Rome (1986), pp. 1-57, 41.

  4 For restrictions on the Flamen Dialis see Gellius, NA 10. 15.

  5 Velleius Paterculus, 2. 22. 2, Appian, BC 1. 74. On Merula and Caesar's nomination for the flaminate see L. Ross Taylor, `Caesar's Early Career', in Classical Philology 36 (1941), pp. 113-132, esp. pp. 114-116.

  6 For confarreatio see S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage: lusti Coniuges from the Time of Cicero to the Time of Ulpian (1991), 21-24; on the name and connection with far see Gains 1. 112, Pliny, NH 18. 10, Festus 78L; for the rituals see Servius, Ad G. 1.31.

  7 Velleius Paterculus 2. 22. 2 claims that Caesar was made Flamen Dialis, but Suetonius explicitly says that he was only `nominated' (destinatus), Suetonius, Caesar 1. 1. See M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 19-21, and Taylor (1941), pp. 115-116. Tacitus, Annals 3. 58 and Dio 54. 36. 1 both state expressly that Merula was the last Flamen Dialis.

  8 For a useful discussion of these years see CAH2 IX (1994), pp. 173-187; on the behaviour of Cicero and his mentors during these years see T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), pp. 81-92.

  9 Appian, BC 1. 76-77.

  10 Plutarch, Sulla 2 for his appearance, failure to win the praetorship 5, and for the epitaph 38; in general see A. Keaveney Sulla: The Last Republican (1982). For the single testicle see Arrius Menander Bk. 1 On Military Affairs. Keaveney (1982), p. 11 argues that the story was probably derived from a bawdy song invented by his soldiers.

  11 On Sulla's good fortune see Keaveney (1982), pp. 40-41.

  12 Appian, BC 1. 78-80, Plutarch, Pompey 5.

  13 For the Civil War see Keaveney (1982), pp. 129-147.

  14 Plutarch, Sulla 27-32, Appian, BC 1. 81-96.

  15 Plutarch, Sulla3l.

  16 On the proscriptions see Keaveney (1982), pp. 148-168, Appian, BC 1. 95, Velleius Paterculus 2. 28. 3-4, and Plutarch, Sulla 31, which includes the anecdote about the Alban estate.

  17 Keaveney (1982), pp. 160-203. For the execution of Ofella see Plutarch, Sulla 33.

  18 Taylor (1941), p. 116.

  19 See Suetonius, Caesar 1. 1-3, Plutarch, Caesar 1, and also L. Ross Taylor, `The Rise of Julius Caesar', Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp. 10-18, esp. 11-12, and Taylor (1941), p. 116.

  20 Suetonius, Caesar 74.

  21 Suetonius, Caesar 1.

  22 Plutarch, Sulla 1. 104, Suetonius, Caesar 77.

  23 Keaveney (1982), pp. 204-213.

  IV The Young Caesar

  1 Cicero, Brutus 290 (Loeb translation by G. Hendrickson (1939), p. 253).

  2 For Suetonius' description of Caesar see Caesar 45. 1; Plutarch's comments are in Caesar 17; Caesar's peculiar dress and Sulla's comments are in Suetonius, Caesar 45.3.

  3 Suetonius, Caesar 45. 2.

  4 For Cicero's house see Velleius Paterculus 2. 14, and E. Rawson, `The Ciceronian Aristocracy and its properties', in M. I. Finley (ed.), Studies in Roman Property (1976), pp. 85-102, esp. 86; for the synagogue in the Subura, see Corpus Inscriptionum Judaicarum 2. 380.

  S Velleius Paterculus 2. 14. 3.

  6 Suetonius, Caesar 46-47.

  7 Suetonius, Caesar 2.

  8 See L. Ross Taylor, `The rise of Julius Caesar', Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp. 10-18, and M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), p. 22. On the corona civica see Gellius, NA 5. 6. 13-14, Pliny, NH 16. 12-13, and discussion in V. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army (1981), pp.70-74, 119-120.

  9 Suetonius, Caesar 2 and 49. 1-4, 52. 3.

  10 Plutarch, Marius 13-14, Polybius 6. 37; on Cato as censor see Plutarch, Cato the Elder 17.

  11 Suetonius, Caesar 22 and 49. 1-4.

  12 For Caesar's public oath see Dio 43. 20. 4; Catullus 54, cf. Suetonius, Caesar 73.

  13 For Cato see Plutarch, Cato the Elder 24; Plutarch, Crassus 5; for the Germans see Caesar, BG 6. 21. For a survey of Roman attitudes see P. Grimal, Love in Ancient Rome (trans. A. Train) (1986).

  14 Suetonius, Caesar 3.

  15 Catullus 10; Cicero, Verr. 1. 40.

  16 Cicero, Brutus 317.

  17 See Suetonius, Caesar 4. 1, 55, Velleius Paterculus 2. 93. 3, and Gelzer (1968), pp. 22-3; on provincial administration in general see A. Lintott's Imperium Romanum: Politics and Administration (1993); for Caesar's high-pitched delivery see Suetonius, Caesar 55. 2.

  18 Plutarch, Caesar 4.

  19 Cicero, Brutus 316.

  20 For the pirate problem see Appian, Mithridatic Wars 91-93, Plutarch, Pompey 24-5; on Caesar's captivity see Suetonius, Caesar 4. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 2.

  21 Plutarch, Caesar 2 (Loeb translation by B. Perrin (1919), p. 445, slightly amended).

  22 For the pirates' throats being cut see Suetonius, Caesar 74.

  23 Suetonius, Caesar 4. 2.

  24 L. Ross Taylor, `Caesar's Early Career', Classical Philology 36 (1941), pp. 113-132, esp. p.117-118.

  25 For the journey back to Rome see Velleius Paterculus 2. 93. 2; for the trial see E. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (1974), p. 528; for Cicero's comment see Suetonius, Caesar 49. 3.

  26 Taylor (1941), pp. 120-122; for the Slave War see Plutarch, Crassus 8-11, Appian, BC 1. 116-121.

  27 For Crassus and Sulla see Plutarch, Crassus 6.

  28 Suetonius, Caesar 5.

  V Candidate

  1 Plutarch, Caesar 5.

  2 For the birth of Julia see M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), p. 21, C. Meier, Caesar (1996), p. 105, and P. Grimal, Love in Ancient Rome (1986), p. 222.

  3 Grimal (1986), pp. 112-115.

  4 For the story of Praecia and Lucullus see Plutarch, Lucullus 6. 2-4; on Cethegus' influence see Cicero, Brutus 178; for the story of Pompey, Geminius and Flora see Plutarch, Pompey 2.

  S For Cytheris see Cicero, ad Fam. 9. 26; Cicero ad Att. 10. 10; Servius, on E10; de vir. 111. 82. 2. Cicero's distaste became public in the Philippics 2. 58, 69, 77.

  6 Suetonius, Caesar 47, 50. 1-52.

  7 Suetonius, Caesar 50. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 46, 62, Brutus 5, Cicero, ad Att. 15. 11; see also R. Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939), pp. 23-24, 116; on Lucullus' divorce of Servilia's sister Servilia see Plutarch, Lucullus 38.

  8 Grimal (1986), pp. 226-237, S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), esp. pp. 105-106, 232-238, 253-261, 264, 270-275, and 299-319.

  9 Sallust, Bell Cat. 25.

  10 Plutarch, Pompey 55 (translation by R. Waterfield in Plutarch: Roman Lives (1999), p. 273).

  11 For a survey of Sertorius' career see A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), pp. 137-151.

  12 For Sulla's legislation see A. Keaveney, Sulla: The Last Republican (1982), pp.169-189.

  13 For the `young executioner' see Valerius Maximus 6. 2. 8; for the killing of Brutus' father see Plutarch, Brutus 4; for Pompey's early career see R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 20-39.

  14 On the impact of military failure on a man's career see N. Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi (1993), passim.

  15 For Pompey and the censors see Plutarch, Pompey 22; for Crassus' feasting see Plutarch, Crassus 2. 2, 12. 3; Comp. Nic. Crassus 1. 4; A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 101-2.

  16 Suetonius, Caesar 5, Gellius, NA 13. 3. 5; on suggestions that he played a wider role in the events of 70 BC see the discussion in Ward (1977), pp. 105-111.

  17 For discussions of elections see L. Ross Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949), esp. pp. 50-75, and Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), esp.
pp. 78-106, A. Lintott, `Electoral Bribery in the Roman Republic', .IRS 80 (1990), pp. 1-16, E Millar, The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic (1998), H. Mouritsen, Plebs and Politics in the Late Roman Republic (2001), esp. pp. 63-89, A. Yakobson, `Petitio et Largitio: Popular Participation in the Centuriate Assembly of the Late Republic', JRS 82 (1992), pp. 32-52; inscriptions on tombs, see ILS 8205-8207.

  18 See Taylor (1966), pp. 78-83, A. Lintott, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (1999), pp. 43-49.

  19 On the quaestorship see Lintott (1999), pp. 133-137; for the suggestion that winners of the corona civica were enrolled in the Senate see L. Ross Taylor, `The Rise of Caesar', Greece and Rome 4 (1957), pp. 10-18, esp. 12-13.

  20 Polybius, 6. 54. 1-2.

  21 Suetonius, Caesar 6. 1, Plutarch, Caesar 5; for Cicero's public and private attitude to Marius see the discussion in T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), pp. 45-51.

  22 Spanish War 42, Suetonius, Caesar 7. 1-2, Velleius Paterculus 2. 43. 4, and comments in Gelzer (1968), p. 32; for his reaction to bust of Alexander and his disturbing dream see Plutarch, Caesar 11, Suetonius, Caesar 7. 1-2, and Dio 37. 52. 2; for Cicero's arrival back from his own quaestorship see pro Planco 64-66.

  23 Suetonius, Caesar 8.

  24 Suetonius, Caesar 6. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 5; for discussion of marriage ceremony see S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), pp. 161-180.

  25 Dio 36. 20. 1-36, Plutarch, Pompey 25-26; for a detailed discussion of the introduction of the Lex Gabinia see P. Greenhalgh, Pompey: The Roman Alexander (1980), pp. 72-90.

  26 On Caesar's support for the Lex Gabinia see Plutarch, Pompey 25, and also T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, 1 (1928), pp. 170-173; for the campaign against the pirates see Appian, Mithridatic Wars 91-93, Plutarch, Pompey 26-28.

  27 For Lucullus' career see A. Keaveney, Lucullus:A Life (1992), esp. 75-128 for his campaigns in the east; on his replacement see Plutarch, Pompey 30-31, Lucullus 36.

  28 Dio 36. 43. 2-3 for Caesar's support; pro Lege Manilia, Cicero's speech in favour of the Lex Manilia has survived.

  29 Plutarch, Caesar 5-6, Suetonius, Caesar 10-11, Velleius Paterculus 2. 43. 4; on the aedileship see Lintott (1999), pp. 129-133; on Caesar's career see Gelzer (1968), pp. 37-39, L. Ross Taylor, `Caesar's Early Career', Classical Philology 36 (1941), pp. 113-132, esp. 125- 131, and (1957), pp. 14-15.

  30 Suetonius, Caesar 10. 1.

  31 Dio 37. 8. 1-2, Pliny, NH 33. 53.

  32 Plutarch, Caesar 5.

  33 Plutarch, Caesar 6, Suetonius, Caesar 11, Velleius Paterculus 2. 43. 3-4, and see also R. Evans, Gains Marius: A Political Biography (1994), p. 4, who suggests that the monuments are unlikely to have been the originals but copies.

  VI Conspiracy

  1 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 12. 1-2.

  2 Dio 36. 44. 3-5, Cicero, pro Sulla 14-17, Sallust, Bell. Cat. 18.

  3 See Suetonius, Caesar 9, Sallust, Bell. Cat. 17-19. For discussions of the `First Catilinarian conspiracy' see E. Salmon, `Catiline, Crassus, and Caesar', American Journal of Philology 56 (1935), pp. 302-316, esp. 302-306; E. Hardy, The Catilinarian Conspiracy in its Context: A Re-study of the Evidence (1924), pp. 12-20; T. Rice Holmes, The Roman Republic, 1 (1928), pp. 234-235; D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), pp. 77-78; and M. Gelzer, Caesar (1968), pp. 38-39.

  4 On the struggle between Crassus and Pompey see A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 128-168; Rice Holmes (1928), pp. 221-283, esp. 242-249. For imperial views of Pompey's return see Velleius Paterculus 2. 40. 2-3, Plutarch, Pompey 43, Dio 37. 20. 5-6

  5 See Plutarch, Crassus 2-3, and Ward (1977), pp. 46-57; for the Licinia incident see Plutarch, Crassus 1, with sceptical comments in Ward (1977), 74-75.

  6 Cicero, Brutus 233.

  7 Plutarch, Crassus 3, Cicero, de Officiis 1. 25, Sallust, Bell. Cat.48.5-7. For `Straw on his horns' and possible pun see Ward (1977), pp. 78.

  8 Plutarch, Crassus 13, Suetonius, Caesar 11, Dio 37. 9. 3-4; Ward (1977), pp. 128-135, Gelzer (1968), pp. 39-41.

  9 Plutarch, Cato the Younger 16-18, Suetonius, Caesar 11, Dio 37. 10. 1-3.

  10 Suetonius, Caesar 74. On Catiline see Asconius 84C; on Ofella see Plutarch, Sulla 33.

  11 Sallust, Bell. Cat.5, 14-17, Plutarch, Cicero 10, Ward (1977), p. 136, 145, Rice Holmes (1928), p. 241, Stockton (1971), p. 79-81, 97, 100.

  12 For Cato the Elder see Plutarch, Cato the Elder, and A. Astin, Cato the Censor (1978). On Cato see Plutarch, Cato the Younger, esp. 1, 5-7, 9, 24-25.

  13 See Stockton (1971), esp. 71-81, E. Rawson, Cicero (1975), T. Mitchell, Cicero: The Ascending Years (1979), esp. p. 93 ff. The inscription that mentions a Lucius Sergius, normally identified as Catiline, on Pompeius Strabo's staff is ILS 8888/ILLRP 515.

  14 For an excellent survey of these years see T. Wiseman, `The Senate and the Populaces, 69-60 BC', in CALF IX (1994), pp. 327-367; on the Rullan land bill see Gelzer (1968), pp. 42-45, Stockton (1971), pp. 84-91, Rice Holmes (1928), pp. 242-249, Ward (1977), pp. 152-162.

  15 For Piso see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 49. 2, Cicero, pro Flacco 98; for Juba see Suetonius, Caesar 71.

  16 For Honours to Pompey see Dio 37. 21. 4. For a discussion of Labienus' origins see R. Syme, `The Allegiance of Labienus', JRS 28 (1938), pp. 424-440.

  17 For The perduellio see trial Dio 37. 26. 1-28. 4, Suetonius, Caesar 12, Cicero, Pro Rabirio perduellionis, with W. Tyrrell, A Legal and Historical Commentary to Cicero 's Oratio Pro Rabirio Perduellionis (1978); the anonymous, de viribus illustribus contains the claim that Rabirius paraded Saturninus' head.

  18 See L. Ross Taylor, Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar (1966), p. 16.

  19 For the election to Pontifex Maximus see Suetonius, Caesar 13, Plutarch, Caesar 7, Dio 37. 37. 1-3, Velleius Paterculus 2. 43. 3.

  20 For a useful discussion of the Regia and its history see T. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), pp. 239-241.

  21 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 23-24, Cicero, pro Murena 51-58, Dio 37. 29. 1-30. 1, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 21. 2-6.

  22 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 22. 1-4, 26. 1-31. 3.

  23 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 31. 4-48. 2, Rice Holmes (1928), pp. 259-272, Stockton (1971), pp. 84-109.

  VII Scandal

  1 Cicero, In Catilinam 3. 1-2 (Loeb translation by C. MacDonald (1977), p. 101).

  2 Quote on canvassing with Catiline, Cicero, ad Att. 1. 2.

  3 Cicero, In Catilinam 2. 22 (Loeb translation by C. MacDonald (1977), p. 91).

  4 Plutarch, Caesar 4. 4 (Loeb translation by B. Perrin (1919), p. 451).

  5 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 48. 5.

  6 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 48. 9; Plutarch, Crassus 13.

  7 Cicero, pro Murena, and Plutarch, Cato the Younger 21. 3-6.

  8 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 49. 1-4, Plutarch, Crassus 13, and Cicero 20. See also D. Stockton, Cicero (1971), pp. 18-19.

  9 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 44-47, Plutarch, Cicero 19, Dio 37. 34. 1-4, Appian, BC 2. 4-5.

  10 On the debate in general see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 50. 3-53. 1; For Catiline's last appearance in the Senate see Cicero, Cat.1. 16.

  11 For Appius Claudius Caecus see Cicero, de Sen.16, Brutus 61.

  12 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 51. 1-3.

  13 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 51. 33.

  14 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 51. 20.

  15 For Caesar's speech see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 51.

  16 For discussion of Caesar's view see Gelzer (1968), pp. 50-52, and C. Meier, Caesar (1996), pp. 170-172.

  17 See Plutarch, Cicero 20-21, Caesar?-8, Suetonius, Caesar 14, and Appian, BC 2. 5.

  18 Cicero, Cat. 4. 3 (Loeb translation by C. MacDonald (1977), p. 137).

  19 On Caesar see Cicero, Cat. 4. 9-10, for Crassus, 4. 10, for scenes of horror, 4. 12.

  20 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 52. 12.

  21 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 52. 17-18, 24-25.

  22 Plutarch, Brutus 5 and Cato the Younger 24. 1-2; For Cicero's reaction to Brutus' version of the debate see Cicero, ad Att. 12. 21. 1.

  23 Sallust, Bell.
Cat. 55. 1-6, Plutarch, Cicero 22 and Caesar 8, Dio 37. 36. 1-4, Ampelius, lib. mem. 31; Sallust placed the threat to Caesar earlier see Bell. Cat. 49. 4.

  24 Cicero, ad Fam. 5. 2. 7-8.

  25 Suetonius, Caesar 15, Dio 37. 44. 1-3.

  26 Dio 37. 43. 1-4, Plutarch, Cato the Younger 26. 1-29. 2.

  27 Suetonius, Caesar 16.

  28 On Catiline's death see Sallust, Bell. Cat. 60. 7, 61. 4; on the informers see Suetonius, Caesar 17.

  29 Plutarch, Caesar 9-10.

  30 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 12. 3, 1. 13. 3, Suetonius, Caesar 74. 2, Plutarch, Caesar 10. For divorce in general see S. Treggiari, Roman Marriage (1991), pp. 435-482 and `Divorce Roman Style: How Easy and Frequent Was It?' in B. Rawson (ed.), Marriage, Divorce and Children in Ancient Rome (1991), pp. 131-146.

  31 See Cicero, ad Att. 1. 13. 3, and Catulus in Cicero, ad Att. 1. 16, Dio 37. 50. 3-4.

  32 Plutarch, Caesar 11, Suetonius, Caesar 18, Cicero, Pro Balbo 28.

  33 See Suetonius, Caesar 18, Appian, Bell. Hisp. 102, Plutarch, Caesar 12, Dio 37. 52. 1-53. 4. For a discussion of the situation in Spain and Caesar's operations see S. Dyson, The Creation of the Roman Frontier (1985), pp. 235-236.

  34 Spanish War 42. 2-3, Cicero, pro Balbo 19, 23, 28, 63 and 43; for the hint at human sacrifice see Strabo, Geog. 3. 5. 3 and Rice Holmes The Roman Republic, 1 (1928), pp. 302-8.

  35 Plutarch, Caesar 11.

  VIII Consul

  1 Sallust, Bell. Cat. 54. 4.

  2 Cicero, ad Att. 2. 5.

  3 Pliny, NH 7. 97, Plutarch, Pompey 45, Dio 37. 21. 1-4, Appian, Mithridatic Wars, 116-117.

  4 For the eastern wars see P. Greenhalgh, Pompey:The Roman Alexander (1980), and A. Goldsworthy, In the Name of Rome (2003), ch. 7, esp. pp. 164-179.

  5 Plutarch, Pompey 42-46, Cato the Younger 30, Velleius Paterculus 2. 40. 3; R. Seager, Pompey the Great (2002), pp. 75-76; on Crassus see Plutarch, Pompey 43, and A. Ward, Marcus Crassus and the Late Roman Republic (1977), pp. 193-199.

  6 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 13; see also ad Att. 1. 14 on Crassus.

  7 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 13, 12; Seager (2002), pp. 77-79.

  8 Cicero, ad Att. 1. 12, Plutarch, Pompey 42, Cato the Younger 30. 1-5, Suetonius, Caesar 50. 1; for Cicero's efforts to placate Metellus Celer in 62 BC see Cicero, ad Pam. 5. 1, 2.