Alcatraz: A Definitive History of the Penitentiary Years

by Michael Esslinger

  The task of converting the Rock into a sound fortress entailed a series of hardships for labor crews. On July 9, 1857, when three men were excavating the cliff between the wharf and the guardhouse, they unleashed a massive landslide. Two of the men, Daniel Pewter and Jacob Unger, were fatally trapped under the loose debris while the other worker escaped with serious injuries. They would become the first ever fatalities on Alcatraz. During the construction, it was found that the Rock mineral proved to be too frail to be used in the fortification and this necessitated the importation of stone from as far away as China. Granite that was ordinarily used as ballast on ships was also apparently employed in the construction. Masons used a high grade of brick, set in heavy concrete forms to create a dense shield of armor against enemy ammunitions. Construction crews also dug well-concealed tunnels that offered safe storage for cannon powder and other munitions. There were specialized furnaces designed to heat incendiary shells, which would be fatal toward fire-prone wooden ship hulls.

  A communication tunnel that was excavated in 1873. The 180-foot tunnel was used as a passageway between two batteries by soldiers during the military era. The Bureau of Prisons sealed the tunnel in 1936 to alleviate the risk of inmates using this passage as an escape route.

  A 19th-century woodcut engraving from William Cullen Bryant's 1872 publication Picturesque America, showing an early portrayal of Alcatraz as a military fortress.

  Second Lieutenant James Birdseye McPherson took command of the fortification construction in January of 1858. In personal letters he implied regret for his post assignment, indicating that the conditions on Alcatraz were cold and miserable. Nevertheless, he proved to be an effective commander at the fort. He would later advance through the ranks, and was eventually killed during the Civil War in the Battle of Atlanta.

  On December 31, 1857, 2nd Lt. James Birdseye McPherson was assigned to Alcatraz to continue supervision of the final construction activities. McPherson lived on the island full-time and in several letters he implied that he disliked his assignment. In one of these he wrote:

  I often think of my position one year ago, and instinctively draw a comparison between it and my present one. Candor compels me to state that in everything appertaining to the social amenities of life the “Pea Patch” [Fort Delaware] is preferable to Alcatraz — though I am determined to make the best of the matter, looking forward joyfully to the time when I can return to the Atlantic States.

  Regardless of his personal bias, McPherson was a dedicated commander and effective taskmaster. He kept his men focused on their orders, and accomplished his objectives at Fort Alcatraz. During an inspection report filed in January of 1859, J.K.F. Mansfield wrote the following:

  I this afternoon inspected the fortifications on Alcatrazes Island in this harbor, and have to report the result to the general chief as follows:

  This work has been under the superintendence of 2nd Lieut. James B. McPherson of the Corps of Engineers since the 1st of January 1858 when he relieved Brevet Major Z.B. Tower of the Corps of Engineers who commenced this work. This work from the beginning has been extremely well conducted, and managed by most faithful and meritorious officers. The progress has been great under the difficulties to be encountered in a new country, at the time the work was commenced.

  At first it was difficult to obtain suitable building materials. New stone is had at various places. Excellent granite comes from Folsom on the American River, for both coping and walls. Granite for coping is had at Monterey. Blue calcarious hard stone is had in this harbor from Angel Island. Brick is in the greatest abundance, and excellent quality from Sacramento. Lime from Diablo via San Joaquin River. Water from Sausalito on the Main, and cement from New York, and all at constructively reasonable rates.

  McPherson left Alcatraz on August 1, 1861, and died following an attack by the Confederate Army during the Battle of Atlanta in July of 1864.

  After several years of laborious construction and several armament expansions, Alcatraz was established as the United States’ western symbol of military strength. The fort boasted over a half mile of masonry walls made of dense brick and sandstone, which surrounded the island, and in some sections stood over thirty feet tall. The new military fortress featured long-range iron cannons and four massive 36,000-pound, 15-inch Rodman guns, which were capable of sinking mammoth hostile ships three miles away. The guns of Alcatraz could fire 6,949 pounds of iron shot in one barrage. At the island’s peak of military supremacy, which came at the end of the Civil War, the fortress had 129 cannons lining the perimeter, capable of firing fifteen-inch cannon balls weighing over four hundred pounds, to a distance of nearly three miles.

  Eadweard Muybridge, one of the great pioneers of photography, shot an extensive series of stereoscopic views of life at the military fortifications on Alcatraz. His photos would endure to become the primary pictorial documentation of the military occupation of the island. This photo series from 1870 illustrates the massive armaments at the fort. Featured are the long-range cannons, ordinance, and massive 36,000-pound, 15-inch Rodman guns, which were capable of sinking enormous hostile ships at a distance of three miles.

  On January 24, 1859, Army Inspector General J.K.F. Mansfield examined the fortifications and reported: “The workmanship as well as plans for the defenses are excellent.” The island dock was also guarded by massive cannons and protected arsenals. The sallyport entrance had a moat, similar to that of a medieval castle that could only be crossed by drawbridge, and it was arrayed with powerful weaponry aimed at the only access pathway. At the island’s summit was a three-story brick Citadel for soldiers, offering a full 360° view of the island. The Citadel was designed as self-sustaining defensive barrack of four-foot-thick brick construction, with multiple rifle slits in every wall to allow soldiers to fire upon a potential enemy landing party. Adjacent to the Citadel was an underground cistern that could sustain the soldiers with a liberal water supply for several months. The island’s jagged rocky perimeter offered no natural landing points for invading enemies.

  The first military command, Company “H” of the Third Artillery, assumed its post on December 30, 1859, with Captain Joseph Stewart as the first commanding officer. In May of the same year, Company “H” was ordered to Carson Valley, Nevada, to quell a disturbance among the Pah Ute and Shoshone Indians, and various other units would assume stations at Fortress Alcatraz. During this same year, the Army would bring the first military prisoners to be confined at Alcatraz.

  Alcatraz Island photographed from North Point in 1865.

  Alcatraz Island circa 1860.

  As is illustrated by these 1870 photographs, the gardens situated next to the Citadel flourished in the rich soil ferried over from Angel Island. These opulent beds were meticulously nurtured by the officers and their families. The formal gardens featured beautiful panoramic vistas of the Bay and they were a popular gathering place for residents.

  The original elevation and section plans for the Citadel. This building was designed as a self-sustaining defensive barrack of four-foot-thick brick construction, with multiple rifle slits in each wall to allow soldiers to fire upon enemy landing parties. There were no cannons or heavy armory mounted inside the building. The fortress was to be defended by infantry soldiers with musket rifles, and was accessed by crossing a small drawbridge over a dry moat. The original plans included iron shutters, and large water cisterns to help sustain soldiers for long periods of siege.

  The Citadel in 1893 following the Civil War. With no threat of impending attack, the building was converted into apartments for married officers. Cannonballs lined the perimeter as decorative border pieces, and the lawn area where a tennis court can be seen here was once the storage area for ordinance.

  General Edwin Sumner

  A 1902 photograph showing the pathway leading up to “Officers’ Row.” Note the brick Citadel building in the upper right corner.

  The pathway known as “Officers’ Row” as it appeared in 1883. These Victorian-styl
e homes were built in 1880-81, and were reserved for the post’s ranking officers. This photograph was taken from the Citadel grounds, with the descending stairway in the right foreground. Cannonballs are clearly visible as decorative borders along the path.

  An engraving from 1883, depicting the original fortification buildings.

  The “Great Sham Battle” of July 3, 1876 was meant to celebrate America’s centennial and to provide the citizens of San Francisco with a grandiose display of military prowess. With one stationary and one floating target (an old Navy schooner), the Bay of San Francisco resonated with the massive barrage of firing weaponry. But despite the awesome power of the 15-inch Rodman Cannons firing in sequence from Alcatraz, the idly floating target (carrying tons of explosives and with its hull soaked in coal oil) effortlessly evaded the bombardment. To avoid further embarrassment, a young soldier finally was launched under cover of the billowing smoke to set fire to the vessel.

  The caption from the original print reads: “Smoothbore, buried muzzle-first serves as a traffic bumper on the uphill turn.” Comparison of the 1902 image to the modern-day photo taken nearly one hundred years later illustrates the changes in architecture and landscape. In the earlier photograph, note the hospital and lower prison on the downhill roadway. Visible in the modern-day photo is the 250,000-gallon water tower built in 1939 and the Spanish-Mission-style chapel, which was later converted into bachelor quarters for Federal prison officers.

  April 12, 1861 marked the official start of the American Civil War between the Northern and Southern States. On April 25th, General Edwin Sumner assumed command of Alcatraz and prepared for war against the Confederate forces. However, many military advisors remained concerned that the Civil War might create vulnerabilities to watchful foreign powers. Sumner therefore issued orders to fire upon any vessel that flew the Confederate flag or advanced aggressively. Sumner proposed to station 400 men at Alcatraz and to provide ample provisions of food and water to sustain the fort for at least six months. However, the fort would only briefly house a staff of this size in 1862.

  On October 1, 1863, a suspicious vessel entered the San Francisco Harbor and approached the Raccoon Straights. Typically a revenue service cutter would greet all vessels entering the Golden Gate, but on this fateful day, the cutter had been assigned to assist a Russian vessel that had run aground. The Commanding Officer at Alcatraz, William A. Winder, had been instructed to confront any vessel that was not registered for entry. His officer reported the sighting of a heavily armed ship being towed by several pilot boats. There was no wind and the ship’s flag was folded vertically with her colors indiscernible. Winder later reported:

  I deemed it my duty to bring to her and ascertain her reason of admittance to the harbor. I therefore fired a blank charge, which apparently not attracting her attention. I directed a gun to be loaded with an empty shell and to be fired 200 or 300 yards ahead of her.

  The ship seemed to return fire, but it was ultimately determined to be firing a salute. Alcatraz then responded with a twenty-one-gun salute, and it is documented that Fort Point commenced firing to join the salute. The approaching vessel was identified as Her Majesty’s ship the HMS Sutlej, the flagship of Rear Admiral John Kingdome (The Sutlej was a Constance-class 50-gun fourth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy). The Admiral was not impressed with the welcoming. Several months later, correspondence was still being exchanged and the military was accused of a careless action.

  Though in its entire history as a military installation, the fortress had fired only one 400-pound cannon round (and missed), nevertheless the island lived up to its self-proclaimed status as an icon of U.S. military power. But within a few decades the island's role as a military fortress would start to fade and its defenses would become obsolete by the standards of more modern weaponry.

  Military soldiers in formation at the dock in 1902. The brick bombproof barracks are visible in the background. The predicted attacks by the Confederacy during the Civil War never materialized, and the original casements, which accommodated two tiers of mounted cannons, were eventually fully converted into permanent barracks. The wooden structure on top was added only as temporary quarters for enlisted soldiers.

  A contemporary view of the corridor located behind the bombproof barracks, known as “China Alley.”

  Another view of the temporary wooden structure set atop the unfinished bombproof barracks in 1893. Note the neatly trimmed decorative planters set in front of the First Sergeant’s dwelling and the other cottage, which served as a barbershop.

  A photograph from 1893, showing the interior of the temporary wooden barracks. Visible are the gun racks and the neatly made bunks on both the upper and lower levels. The barracks were always immaculate and kept in perfect order.

  The Casting of a New Prison Concept

  The punishment of criminals has existed as a social force throughout the history of mankind, and the earliest records offer horrific tales of rat-infested dungeons and the use of barbaric torture devices. Before offenders were sentenced to serve time in confinement, they were publicly tormented both physically and mentally. One of the most common means of punishment in past centuries was to lock the convicted criminal into a pillory device for public display. Use of the pillory can be traced back to a remote period in English history, as early as the twelfth century. Throughout the history of this device, the prominent display of a pillory represented a firm presence of law and order within a community, and emerged as a popular mode of punishment even in more modern society. There were several other forms of discipline that were equally barbaric, such as public lashings and mutilation, as well as a variety of other means of degradation. Public executions were also frequent; hanging and fatal stoning were other common forms of punishment for sadistic crimes.

  A broken device which resembled a pillory was found in a storage area on Alcatraz during the institution’s transfer to the Bureau of Prisons in 1934. Although its use was never validated or proven it was an actual pillory, it did suggest that t method of punishment was used during the island’s early history as a military prison.

  Prisons have been documented to exist for several centuries, but until the 1700’s they were grim places that served only for transitory confinement while prisoners were awaiting trial or punishment. The conditions in these jails were horrendous, with open sewers and diseased rodents that scurried across dirt floors on which the men were forced to sleep without bedding. But after the American Revolution, the newly formed United States sought to reform those who violated public laws. The Pennsylvania Quakers initially introduced the concept of reforming criminals through time spent under confinement. The Quakers built a small prison, which was comprised of sixteen individual and fully isolated cells. This new concept was intended to achieve reform by forcing criminals to serve out their entire sentence in complete isolation and silence. The criminals were left only with a Holy Bible and the reformers believed that this would help them to achieve penance. It was from this practice that the word “penitentiary” was cast into modern society.

  Eastern State Penitentiary in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania was the world’s first true penitentiary. Eastern State opened in 1829, and was designed to inspire penitence in the criminals incarcerated there. The idea was to reform criminals through a Quaker-inspired system of strict isolation, which would allow for deep thought and remorse. It was from this philosophy of spiritual penitence that the term “penitentiary” was born. The medieval castle-like structure was intended to present a forbidding and haunted facade.

  As a prison, Alcatraz would become a modernized and less barbaric form of the pillory. From its humble beginnings as a small military jail, it would eventually silence the most feared public adversaries, in the interest of maintaining the good order of society. It became both an icon and a societal pillar, a symbol of firm justice for America’s worst offenders.

  The Early Years as a Military Prison

  In August of 1861 the U.S. Military began sending Civil War p
risoners to Alcatraz Island, which seemed perfect for this purpose because of its natural isolation. At this stage the island had no formal prison facilities, and prisoners were housed in a large damp cell located in the basement of the Guardhouse. Living conditions for the inmates were grim. Their jail was a crude structure, similar in many ways to a medieval dungeon and accessible only through a fortified ceiling hatch via a small ladder. The primitive cell was unheated and it accommodated approximately fifteen soldiers. There was no plumbing, and the inmates were forced to use buckets to relieve themselves. By day, the prisoners were assigned to exhausting hard-labor details, and by night, they were generally forced to sleep in cramped conditions on the ground, side-by-side. In a 1969 historical military report to the San Francisco Mayor’s Office, Herbert M. Hart described some of the problems that the commanders at Alcatraz were faced with in 1862.

  A period photograph of the sallyport entrance. The support beams along the ceiling include both the base floor of the library and the distant passage is situated under the lower prison cellblock. At least one historical reference indicates that the gunroom on the immediate left was used as a dungeon cell for troublesome prisoners who were housed in the original jail, which was accessible through a hatch panel on the floor of the guardhouse.