295 In 1600: Grant K. Goodman, Japan: The Dutch Experience (London: Athlone Press, 1986), pp. 4-5.
295 In 1630: ibid, p. 34.
295 From 1640 until: ibid., pp. 10-12, 18.
295 inevitably, Japanese interpreters: ibid., pp. 32-33.
295 rangakusha: ibid., pp. 5-6.
295 They were keen: ibid., p. 37.
296 Classical Chinese medicine: Marius B. Jansen, The Making of Modern Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 210.
296 The interpreters learned: Goodman, Japan, pp. 38-40.
296 Their contributions, notably: Donald Keene, The Japanese Discovery of Europe, 1720-1830, rev. ed. (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1969), pp. 21-24. See also Shigehisa Kuriyama, “Between Mind and Eye: Japanese Anatomy in the Eighteenth Century,” in Charles Leslie and Allan Young, eds., Paths to Asian Medical Knowledge (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), pp. 21-43.
296 Kaitai Shinsho: a translation by Sugito Gempako and Maeno Ryotaku of Tafel Anatomica by Johann Adam Kulmus.
296 Subcamp No. 13-B: Lassiter A. Mason, statement, December 1, 1945, p. 3, RG331, Box 1192, NARA.
296 “drab-looking buildings”: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 92.
296 “Put your gear”: ibid., pp. 92-93.
296 Lieutenant Jack George put: ibid.
297 Ōsaka, the second-largest: Kazuo Nishida, Storied Cities of Japan (Tōkyō: John Weatherhill, 1963), pp. 251-52.
297 The city was celebrated: ibid., pp. 250-51.
297 a major supplier of wartime: W. F. Craven and J. L. Cate, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II, vol. 5, The Pacific: Matterhorn to Nagasaki, June 1944 to August 1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), p. 619.
297 Hochman reported to Nosu: Hochman testimony, p. 2; See also Mason statement.
298 fifty-three-year-old Murata: Inoue Kiyoko, author interview, July 12, 2002, Kyōto, Japan.
298 “Our people will not”: Quoted in William McGaffin, “The Price of Victory: Japs More Cruel to Yanks Than to Other Captives,” Chicago Daily News, September 8, 1945, p. 2.
298 Ōsaka No. 1: Philip E. Sanders, statement, May 1, 1946, in U.S.A. vs. Sotaro Murata, Case #155, Headquarters Eighth Army, United States Army, Office of the Staff Judge Advocate, Yokohama, Japan, February 16, 1949, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
298 “Nosu couldn’t do anything”: Kobayashi Kazuo, author interview, July 11, 2002, Ōsaka, Japan.
298 frequent drills: Daws, Prisoners, p. 101
298 a special latrine for diarrhea: See Signal Corps photograph, SC-225182, September 21, 1945: “Latrine used by men at Tsumori prison camp. The diarrhea sign was placed on the door by the American doctor but soon lost its significance for all men had diarrhea.” Still Photo Collection, NARA.
299 POWs hauled rocks: Mason statement, p. 4.
299 Some were so: Joseph Astarita, author interview, June 4, 2003.
299 Rice, or barley: Gus Priebe, author interview, June 6, 2003.
299 permission to bake bread: Sam Silverman, author interview, June 4, 2003.
299 practice dentistry: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 94.
299 Down in the shipyards: Ienaga, Pacific War, pp. 98-101.
300 secret shortwave radios: Frank Gross, author interview, June 24, 2003.
300 B.H.J. Boerboom: GHQ/SCAP Records, Investigation Division Report No. 134, RG 331, Box 1765, Folder 13, NARA.
300 The prisoners’ clothing: Gross interview.
300 “make them strong”: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 95.
300 When Samuel Silverman: Silverman interview, June 4, 2003.
301 Tsukioka Yoshio used: Tsukioka Yoshio, author interview, July 11, 2002, Osaka. In 1952 Juganji Temple was moved to Mount Ikoma in Higashi, Osaka, to make way for the expanded Tanimachi subway line. See Kahorl Sakane, “Foreign WWII Soldiers Rest in Peace at Ōsaka Temple,” Daily Yomiuri.
301 Like other residents: Milward, War, Economy, pp. 256-57; Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 177.
301 Rationing began: Thomas R. H. Havens, Valley of Darkness: The Japanese People and World War II (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), p. 50.
301 The Basic Necessities: Ienaga, Pacific War, pp. 193-94.
301 By early 1942: Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 172. For research on food in Japanese culture, I am indebted to Nakao Tomoyo, who kindly shared her Japanese publications with me. See “Sensō horyo mondai no hikaku bunkateki kōsatsu: ‘Shoku’ no mondai o chûshin ni” (Comparative Cultural Aspects of the POW Problem: Focusing on the Isssue of “Food”), in Sensō sekinin kenky(War Responsibility Studies) no. 22 (Winter 1998), no. 23 (Spring 1999), and no. 26 (Winter 1999).
301 The nutritional standard: Ienaga, Pacific War, p. 193.
302 Military rations were: Milward, War, Economy, pp. 257-58.
302 gas stations: ibid., p. 319.
302 Women and high school: ibid., pp. 257-58.
302 But coal and charcoal: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 122.
302 “a ratio of one hundred”: Asahi Shimbun, Pacific Rivals, pp. 100-101.
302 To augment dwindling: Gibney, Sensō, pp. 180-81.
302 To conserve energy: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 122.
302 Sweet potatoes were: ibid., p. 123.
302 And to save leather: ibid., p. 120.
302 Extravagance, associated with: ibid., p. 15.
302 “Luxury Is the Enemy”: ibid., p. 18.
302 Books and magazines: ibid., p. 23.
302 Foreign films: Mainichi Newspapers, Fifty Years of Light and Dark: The Hirohito Era (Tōkyō: Mainichi Newspapers, 1975), p. 111.
302 Freedom of speech: Ienaga, Pacific War, p. 99.
303 Habeas corpus was: ibid., p. 98.
303 “People’s bars”: Havens, Valley of Darkness, pp. 151, 152.
303 Neighborhood associations: Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 171.
303 Members dug trenches: ibid., p. 340.
303 As of 1943: Ienaga, Pacific War, p. 195.
303 Boys as young: ibid., p. 198.
303 the minimum age: See Cook and Cook, Japan at War, pp. 173-75.
303 By 1944 millions: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 103.
303 In Kōbe third- and fourth-year students: See Kappa Senoh’s autobiographical novel, A Boy Called H: A Childhood in Wartime Japan, trans. John Bester (New York: Kodansha International, 1999), p. 279.
303 Schoolgirls helped: Ōsaka International Peace Museum, Exhibition Hall A.
303 The elderly were: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 104.
303 Children were expected: Gibney, Sensō, p. 7.
303 “imperial likenesses”: See Senoh, Boy Called H, p. 99.
303 From the sixth edition: Ienaga, Pacific War, p. 107.
303 Japan was a divine: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 29.
303 For years the curriculum: ibid., p. 27.
303 At one school: Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 468.
303 Imperial General Headquarters: Kase, Journey, p. 74.
303 official wire service: Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 62.
303 Radio broadcasts boasted: ibid., p. 253.
304 Even when the Left: Buruma, Inventing Japan, p. 231.
304 The kokutai: Ienaga, Pacific War, p. 231.
304 “Truly it is time”: quoted in Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 69.
304 Ringed by the: Milward, War, Economy, p. 259.
304 It was a small camp: “Investigation of the Wakamaya Prisoner of War Camp,” January 31, 1946, GHQ/ SCAP, p.1.
305 The kitchens at Wakayama: Perpetuation of Testimony of John Jacob Bookman, “In the Matter of Inadequate Medical Supplies and Food Furnished prisoners of war at Wakayama Prisoner of War Camp and Kobe Prisoner of War Hospital, from April 1944 to June 1945,” WCO/JAG, p. 2, RG 331, Box 954, Folder 17 [OS-204-J-16], NARA.
305 Okazaki Isojirō: ibid.
305 Wakayama Iron Works: “Report on Wakayama Camp,” GHQ/SCAP, Investigation Division Report No. 143, January
31, 1946, RG 331, NARA.
305 But John and the other: Nakamura Ryuichiro, author interview, July 9, 2002, Wakayama, Japan.
305 The hospital was: Michno, Hellships, pp. 46-47.
306 A stone walkway: Jan Hendrik Ritsma, affidavit, 11 June 1946, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
306 These weren’t humans: Ferdinand V. Berley, interview by Jan K. Herman, pp. 28-29; see also “Plan of the Ichioika Prisoner of War Camp, Ichioka Hospital Ward,” prepared by Hiroyuki Morita, attached to statement of Yoshiro Nakata, January 18, 1946, Investigation Division Report No. 125. RG 331, Box 1765, Folder 4, NARA.
306 The POWs at Ichioka: GHQ/SCAP, Investigation Division Report No. 125, RG 331, Box 1765, NARA.
306 Together they had: Michno, Hellships, pp. 83-84.
306 At first Surgeon-Lieutenant: Roly Dean, autobiographical narrative (unpublished), p. 219.
306 “Our first reaction”: letter to Joe Vater (unpublished), 1995.
307 two bodies fit: Roly Dean, letter to author, June 11, 2002.
307 Then the barrels: Jack Hughieson, letter to author, November 23, 2001.
307 soaked the rice overnight: Clayton Woodrow Atwood, affidavit, October 29, 1945, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
307 They made tea: Dean narrative, p. 231.
307 stole them outright: Leslie George Kelly, statement, October 14, 1946, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
307 For surgery, Jackson: Charles Anthony Jackson, affidavit, “In the Matter of Japanese War Crimes and in the Matter of the Ill-Treatment of Prisoners of War and Conditions at Ichioka Hospital Camp, Osaka, Japan,” RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
307 Once Jackson resorted: Clinton D. Metzler, deposition, September 25, 1945, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
307 From November 1942: Jackson affidavit.
308 The sick received: ibid., p. 1.
308 First Lieutenant Matsuyama: John Quinn, statement, September 7, 1945, RG 407, Box 148, NARA.
308 “four of the victims”: Jackson affidavit, p. 1.
308 The guards: Hendrik Jan Ritsma, statement, June 11, 1946, p. 2, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
308 “you took a bashing”: Dean narrative, p. 235.
308 “piss tin and bedpan”: ibid., p. 227. 309 In April 1944: John Quinn, “Anglo American Solidarity,” unpublished recollection, April 1984.
309 They gave buckets: John Quinn, “49 Top Hats,” unpublished recollection, April 1984.
309 John Quinn: ibid.
310 The game was: Ricardo Trota Jose to author, November 21, 2004.
310 “There we stood”: Quinn, “Anglo-American Solidarity,” pp. 2-3.
310 “we always made sure”: Dean narrative, p. 227.
310 Jackson would have: ibid., 232. 310 To cure diarrhea: Hochman testimony, “In the Matter of Atrocities.”
310 primary erythromelalgia: Jackson affidavit.
311 Kidd was so bloated: Kidd, Twice Forgotten, pp. 85-96.
312 absorbent chromic catgut: Dr. John Kirkup, letter to the author, July 14, 2003.
313 “Suitably” meant killing: “Killing of POWs in Osaka,” Mainichi Shimbun, August 13, 1998, p. 17, trans. for the author by John Junkerman.
313 The Japanese suspected Jackson: John Finch Akeroyd, statement, Australian War Memorial, October 10, 1942.
313 Moreover, he had: Dean narrative, p. 238.
314 “It is important to note”: Murray Glusman, “Discharges and Deaths,” in “Medical Notes.”
314 Nor could they: Robert Jay Lifton, The Nazi Doctors: Medical Killing and the Psychology of Genocide (New York: Basic Books, 2000), p. 269.
315 “The Japs took it”: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 100.
315 Tenko was scheduled: Joseph W. Wright, testimony “In the matter of I.T. Scott, USN,” November 25, 1946, p. 3, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
315 Akeroyd saluted: Ferdinand V. Berley, testimony, “In the Matter of the Beating of Patients and Staff Members at Ichioka Stadium Hospital, Osaka, Japan, 8 May 1944, 15 February 1946,” p. 3, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
315 Kitamura joined the fray: ibid.; John Finch Akeroyd, statement, n.d., RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
315 They slapped, punched: Ritsma statement, p. 2.
315 Sometimes three Japanese: E.M. Gonie, affidavit, Investigation Division Report No. 125, June 20, 1947, RG 331, Box 1765, Folder 4, NARA.
316 “All men die”: Akeroyd statement, p. 2; Thomas Rhodes, notes, September 7, 1945, Red Cross Hospital, Ōsaka.
316 There would be no: Gonie affidavit.
316 John Allison Page: J. A. Page, “Report On Period Served as Prisoner of War of the Imperial Japanese Army from 25th December 1941 to 8th September, 1945,” p. 2, CMAC, GC/131/18, Acc. No. 413, Papers of Surgeon/Commander J.A. Page, RN, Wellcome Trust Library for the History and Understanding of Medicine, London.
316 Page had been captured: ibid., p. 1.
316 “The Royal Navy blokes”: Dean narrative, p. 239.
316 an X-ray of Akeroyd’s: Sams, “Medic,” p. 144.
317 Fred figured: Berley interview by Herman, p. 30.
317 On July 10: p. 3. See Lionel Wigmore, The Japanese Thrust (Canberra: Australian War Memorial, 1957), pp. 620-25.
Chapter 19: Bad Timing and Good Luck
318 “the vestibule of the country”: City of Kobe: Its Evolution and Enterprises (Corporation of the City of Kobe, 1929), p. 6.
318 with a population: U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, “Effects of Air Attack on Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto,” Urban Areas Division, June 1947, MR #A117, p. 149, AFHRC.
318 Japanese girls were: Buruma, Inventing Japan, p. 66.
318 Japanese men wore: ibid.
318 Jazz was: Asahi Shimbun, Pacific Rivals, p. 78.
318 NO PHOTOGRAPHING: Krasno, Last Glorious Summer, p. 62.
319 Nippon Airplane: U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, “Effects of Air Attack on Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto,” Urban Areas Division, June 1947, MR #A1157, p. 156, AFHRC.
319 Kawasaki Shipbuilding Yards: U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, “Field Report Covering Air-Raid Protection and Allied Subjects in Kobe Japan,” Exhibit G, February 1947, p. 105, Civilian Defense Division, MR #A1115, AFHRC.
319 Kōbe Steel turned: U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, “Effects of Air Attack on Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto,” pp. 191, 212.
319 The hospital occupied: Sotaro Murata, message, August 27, 1945, p. 2, Archives générales 1918-1950, Groupe G [Generalités: affaires operationnelles] 1939-1950, G 3/51, M. Junod, Japón, Box 219 [1], ACICR.
319 Equipment was Japanese: Page, “Report on Period,” p. 3.
319 There was a communal bath: Erwin Bernath, “Report on the Visit Made on October 4, 1944, by a Delegate of the Swiss Legation at Tokyo, to Hospital No. 30 Dependent upon Prisoner of War Camp Kobe No. 31,” RG 331, Box 952, NARA.
319 By July 1944: De Jong, Collapse, p. 291.
319 At the Kōbe POW Hospital: H. C. Angst, “Report on Kōbe POW Hospital Visit, August 18, 1944,” ICRC, p. 2, RG 331, Box 952, NARA.
319 Captain C. R. Boyce: Wigmore, Thrust, p. 624.
320 more serious cases: C. R. Boyce, “Medical Report,” Section 2, Admin. & Dis. Book Kobe House POW Camp 09.06.1943-06.09.1945, Australian War Memorial 54, Written Records 1939-1945 War, 554/15/2.
320 The Japanese refused: Beaumont, “Victims of War,” pp. 2-3.
320 “because they always”: “In the Matter of Inadequate Means of Transportation,” p. 3.
320 On June 6: Dear and Foot, Oxford Companion, pp. 974-95.
321 “Victory on the March”: Japanese caption quoted from photograph 179026, in RG 80-G, General Records of the Department of the Navy, General Photographs, 1918-45 (Prints), 178750-179177, Still Picture Branch, NARA.
321 The seriousness of: Sam Sofer, “Narrative,” unpublished manuscript, p. 35; Jack Hughieson, letter to author, September 21, 2001.
321 daily air raid drills: John Lane, Summer Will Come Again, at www.summer-will-come-again.com, p. 5:3.
321 “most suitable”: Angst, “Report on Kōbe POW Hospital Visit.”
&n
bsp; 321 “SATISFACTION GRATITUDE”: Report No. 1199, Kōbe Prisoner of War Hospital, September 18, 1944, RG 331, Box 952, NARA.
321 “I command!”: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 104.
321 “Difficulty grows”: quoted in Waterford, Prisoners of Japanese, p. 21.
322 “principles of humanity”: Lane, Summer, p. 5:3.
322 Or at Ōsaka: Philip Earl Sanders, testimony, 1 May 1946, p. 3, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.
322 Private Everett D. Reamer: This account is based on Reamer, Sanity, pp. 65-70, and Reamer interviews, June 2003, Albuquerque, N.M.
324 In 1870, two years: John Z. Bowers, Medical Education in Japan: From Chinese Medicine to Western Medicine (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), p. 35.
324 Pathological anatomy: William Johnston, The Modern Epidemic: A History of Tuberculosis in Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies/Harvard University, 1995), p. 46.
324 The emperor Meiji: Keene, Emperor of Japan, p. 798n5.
324 Hashimoto went on: ibid.
324 By the late nineteenth century: Bowers, Medical Education, pp. 35-37.
324 At the same time: Quoted in Starr, Social Transformation, p. 113.
325 Germany was preeminent: ibid., pp. 113-14.
325 Lectures and rote memorization: Sams, “Medic,” p. 121.
325 Hopkins made a: Starr, Social Transformation , p. 115.
325 The medical curriculum: Bowers, Medical Education, pp. 38-39.
325 There was no written: Sams, “Medic,” p. 121.
325 Before World War II: ibid.
325 They were allowed: ibid., p. 132.
325 Second-class doctors: ibid., p. 121.
325 In the Russo-Japanese: Hans Zinsser, As I Remember Him: The Biography of R.S. (Boston: Little, Brown, 1940), p. 394.
325 In 1940 Shiga was: ibid., p. 390.
325 But the same government: Margaret M. Lock, East Asian Medicine in Urban Japan: Varieties of Medical Experience (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980), p. 15.
325 Kanpō, as it: Bowers, Medical Education , p. 37.
325-26 With little understanding: Roland, Long Night’s Journey, p. 191.
326 “Arrangements to send”: ATIS, “Survey of Japanese Medical Units,” Research Report No. 124, January 17, 1947, p. 10, microfiche, 10-RR-124, MHI.
326 Japanese doctors were: ibid., pp. 11-12.
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