Conduct Under Fire

by John A. Glusman

  377 From a blister: Marshall, B-29 Superfortress , p. 86.

  377 The lead planes, “pathfinders”: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 614.

  377 The pathfinders raced: Caidin, Torch to Enemy, p. 110.

  378 “a beautiful but”: Marshall, B-29 Superfortress, p. 86.

  378 Red and white: Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, p. 180.

  378 The 73rd Bomb Wing: ibid., p. 172.

  378 Clusters spilled out: Caidin, Torch to Enemy, p. 110.

  378 For the next: ibid., p. 113.

  378 Strong spring gusts: ibid., pp. 117-18.

  378 The searing heat: Marshall, Final Assault, p. 130.

  378 “Going into northwest Tōkyō”: Vernon Piotter, author interview, May 17, 2003, Charlotte, N.C.

  378 In some sections of: Edward Seidensticker, Tokyo Rising: The City Since the Great Earthquake (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1991), p. 141.

  378 Six thousand firefighters: Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, p. 190.

  378 Houses exploded: This description is based on Caidin, Torch to Enemy, pp. 135-52, and Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, pp. 189-214.

  379 “The very streets”: quoted in Wyden, Day One, p. 185.

  379 Tōkyō’s citizens died: Takeo Ishikawa, Tokyo in Raiders’ Ordeal, trans. Dr. and Mrs. William D. Bray.

  379 “If you could look”: Routhier interview.

  379 “a reddish glow”: Bernard Greene, author interview, April 2003.

  379 LeMay already knew: Wyden, Day One, p. 184.

  379 Except for one: Robert Doty, author interview, May 17, 2003, Charlotte, N.C.

  380 “Excellent results”: Julius Stillman, Combat Diary, November 1944-August 1945 (privately printed), p. 20.

  380 “thought it appalling”: quoted in Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, p. 213.

  380 “We knew we”: quoted in Lindqvist, History of Bombing, p. 109.

  380 “exceptionally well pleased”: quoted in Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, p. 212.

  380 “I believe that all”: ibid., p. 212.

  380 The American firebombing: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 617.

  380 Of the city: ibid., p. 616.

  380 In one night: McKelway, “Reporter with B-29s,” Part 3, p. 36.

  380 “Even after all the”: quoted in Cook and Cook, Japan at War, p. 353.

  380 It took almost a month: Dower, War Without Mercy, p. 41.

  Chapter 23: Total War

  381 The incendiary raids demonstrated: U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, “Field Report Covering Air-Raid Protection and Allied Subjects in Kobe Japan,” February 1947, p. 8, MR #A1154, AFHRC.

  381 Families were taught how: “Preparation for an Air Raid,” Osaka city circular, trans. for the author by Ibuki Yuka.

  381 In December 1944: The Anti-Air Raid Guidelines for Families and Tonari-gumi, Ōsaka International Peace Center, Exhibit A, Osaka, Japan.

  381 Another government publication: ibid.

  381 “went off so often”: Araki Kiyoshi, interview by Ishii Shinpei, Kōbe, March 17, 2002, trans. for the author by John Junkerman.

  382 In Kōbe all: USSBS, “Field Report Covering Air-Raid Protection,” p. 16.

  382 Fire departments lacked: ibid., p. 19.

  382 Kōbe’s industries developed: ibid., p. 22.

  382 Only the two and a half miles of tunnels: ibid., p. 68.

  382 Throughout Japan: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 167.

  382 Indeed, tens of thousands: USSBS, “Field Report Covering Air-Raid Protection,” p. 24.

  382 But by January: USSBS, “Effects of Air Attack on Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto,” Urban Areas Division, June 1947, MR A1177, p. 149, AFHRC.

  382 “I’m not afraid”: Robert E. Copeland to Norma Copeland. Courtesy William Copeland.

  382 On the night of March 16-17: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 622.

  382 The planes were armed: ibid.

  382 stocks of M-69s: Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, p. 217.

  382 The Superforts swept: Charles F. Gregg, Diaries, 1941-45, p. 171, ID CSUZ89056-A. Courtesy Hoover Institute for the Study of War and Peace.

  382 “waking up”: Stillman, Combat Diary, p. 23.

  383 “It was the most spectacular”: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 110.

  383 They had thrown: quoted in Kerr, Surrender and Survival, p. 250.

  383 And they had launched: ibid., pp. 524-25.

  383 At Kōbe House: Lane, Summer, p. 5:7.

  383 Then at 0300: Harold J. Mason, affidavit, December 28, 1945, GHQ/SCAP Records, Investigation Division Report No. 12, March 1947-June 1948, RG 331, Box 1758, Folder 13, NARA.

  383 Radio operator Robert Doty’s: Robert Doty, author interview, May 17, 2003, Charlotte, N.C.

  384 The Japanese press: See Senoh, Boy Called H, p. 390: “A considerable number of fires were started within the city as a result of bombing by a force of approximately sixty B29s, but they were almost all brought under control by 10:00 a.m.”

  384 Fujimoto Toshio was: Fujimoto Toshio, interview by Ishii Shinpei, March 17, 2002, Kōbe, Japan, trans. for the author by John Junkerman.

  385 Mikitani Hiroko: Nakata Masako, interview, July 10, 2002, Kōbe, Japan.

  386 Only three B-29s: XXI Bomber Command Air Intelligence Report, vol. 1, no. 4 (March 29, 1945), p. 4, MR #C0036, AFHRC.

  386 One was shot down: Fukubayashi Toru, “Allied Airplanes Lost over the Japanese Mainland—Chuba Army District” (unpublished).

  386 By morning, the: Suchiro Ito, interrogation by First Lieutenant Joseph J. Henderson, GHQ/SCAP, Investigation Division Report No. 12, January 13, 1948, p. 9.

  386 “For a saving grace”: Howard Nemerov, “The War in the Air,” in Harvey Shapiro, ed., Poets of World War II (New York: Library of America, 2003), pp. 141-42.

  386 In the predawn darkness: Koji Takaki, “Captain Junichi’s Last Combat,” p. 1, Sallyann2/copeland7.html (July 8, 2004).

  386 The bodies of: Koji Takaki to William Copeland, May 19, 2000. Courtesy William Copeland.

  386 Five airmen in: Friar Marcian Pellet to Norma Copeland, Novmber 7, 1945. Courtesy William Copeland.

  386 A Japanese flight boat: Takai, “Captain Junichi’s Last Combat,” p. 1.

  387 The body of: Harold K. Brinkerhoff to Norma Copeland, December 19, 1945. Courtesy William Copeland.

  387 The captured fliers: “Execution of Lt. Nelson and Sgt. Augunus,” March 2, 1946, p. 1, GHQ/SCAP, Legal Section Investigation Division, RG 331, Folder 21, NARA.

  387 Their fate had: ibid., p. 2.

  387 A military tribunal: U.S.A. vs. Eitaro Uchiyama et al., Headquarters Eighth Army, U.S. Army, Office of the Staff Judge Advocate, Case #123, Yokohama, July 1, 1948, pp. 22-23.

  387 The sentence, under: ibid., pp. 17-18, 20.

  387 Asked if he: Takao Mori, testimony, in U.S.A. vs. Eitaro Uchiayama et al., RG 331, Box 994, OS-202 (L-48), p. 12, NARA.

  387 a botched beheading: ibid.

  387 the Japanese tried: ibid., p.17.

  387 Americans were shot: ibid., p.16

  387 Soon it was cherry: Ohnuki-Tierney, Kamikaze, p. 29.

  388 Soon Colonel Murata: “ ‘Message’ of Colonel Sotaro Murata,” 27 August 1945, Commander Osaka POW Camp, p. 5, Archives générales, 1918-1950, Groupe G [Généralities: affaires opérationelles], 1939-1950, G 3/51, M. Junod, Japón, Box 219 [1], ACICR.

  388 All the officers: Wigmore, Thrust, p. 624.

  388 “The greatest naval”: Baldwin, Battles Lost and Won, p. 368.

  388 To secure it: Dear and Foot, Oxford Companion, p. 836.

  388 “to reduce his”: Samuel Eliot Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 14, Victory in the Pacific, 1945 (Edison, N.J.: Castle Books, 2001), p. 92.

  388 “the inevitable showdown”: Hiromichi Yahara, The Battle for Okinawa: A Japanese Officer’s Eyewitness Account of the Last Great Campaign of World War II, trans. Roger Pineau and Masatoshi Uehara (New York: John Wiley, 1995), pp. 144, 196.

  389 Kamikaze were unleashed
: ibid., p. 181.

  389 named them oka: ibid., p. 100.

  389 Five days after: Bix, Hirohito, p. 493.

  389 In this plan: Headquarters, USAFFE and Eighth U.S. Army (Rear ), “Homeland Operations Record,” Japanese Monograph No. 17, p. 201, MHI.

  389 The Kōbe-Ōsaka region: ibid., p. 65.

  389 “The Imperial Army”: ibid., p. 204.

  390 Turning the homeland: ibid., pp. 219ff.

  390 “Ichioku ichigan”: Hoyt, Japan’s War, p. 320.

  390 “Transcend life and”: Albert Axell and Hideaki Kase, Kamikaze (London: Longman, 2002), quoted in Harper’s Magazine, December 2002, p. 20.

  390 U.S. intelligence estimated: See D. M. Giangreco, “Operation DOWNFALL: U.S Plans and Japanese Counter-Measures,” p. 7, from “Beyond Bushido: Recent Work in Japanese Military History” symposium, University of Kansas, February 16, 1998.

  390 To the very end: Frank, Downfall, p. 196.

  390 Murray had fenced: Richard Cohen, By the Sword: A History of Gladiators, Musketeers, Samurai, Swashbucklers, and Olympic Champions (New York: Modern Library, 2002), p. 162.

  390 During the war: Chang, Rape of Nanking, pp. 56-57.

  391 “Today there was”: quoted in Kōbe-shi shi, Dai-san sh: Shakai bunka hen (Kōbe City History, vol. 3, Society and Culture), n.d., trans. for the author by John Junkerman.

  391 Until March 1945: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 126.

  391 At Ōsaka University: Tjii Tomō, “Locusts and Beef,” in Professors and Staff of Osaka Prefectural University, My War Experiences (Osaka, 1985), pp. 38-39, trans. for the author by Ibuki Yuka.

  391 Whether it was rice: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 103.

  392 On April 12, 1945: Harris, Mitchell, and Schecter, Home Front, p. 206.

  392 The news of: Lane, Summer, p. 5:9.

  392 “THE WAR IN”: Lingeman, Don’t You Know, p. 354.

  393 The Combined Chiefs: James, Years of MacArthur, p. 2:521.

  393 At the Anglo-American: ibid., p. 2:711.

  393 In April 1945: ibid., pp. 2:724-26.

  393 Nimitz was assigned: Spector, Eagle Against Sun, p. 542.

  393 GHQ/AFPAC would be: Eiji Takemae, Inside GHQ: The Allied Occupation of Japan and Its Legacy, trans. Robert Ricketts and Sebastian Swann (New York: Continuum, 2002), p. xxvii.

  393 MacArthur’s plan: ibid., pp. 37-38.

  393 Olympic called for: Frank, Downfall, p. 136.

  393 The Allies had crushing: ibid., p. 200.

  393 Decisive Battle: ibid., p. 188.

  393 People’s Volunteer Corps: Takemae, Inside GHQ, pp. 38-39.

  393 “Spirit of Three Million Spears”: Havens, Valley of Darkness, pp. 189-90.

  395 Private Allen Beauchamp: Bookman, “In the Matter of Inadequate Medical Supplies,” p. 3.

  395 Shunya remembered Ōhashi: Miyazaki Shunya, author interview, July 16, 2002, Takarazuka, Japan.

  395 Japan was resolved: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 105.

  395 “The Japanese people must”: quoted in Hoito Edoin, The Night Tokyo Burned: The Incendiary Campaign Against Japan, March-August 1945 (New York: St. Martin’s, 1987), p. 171.

  395 The B-29 precision attack on: USSBS, “Effects of Air Attack On Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto,” p. 159.

  397 In May 1945 the XXI Bomber Command: Don. R. Thurow, author interview, May 17, 2003, Charlotte, N.C.

  397 “Japanese Citizens!”: “The Living Hell After a Bombardment,” Leaflet No. 2047, trans. for the author by John Junkerman.

  397 Allied POWs in Japan: Dean narrative, p. 354.

  397 “Now, if you are taken”: quoted in Caidin, Torch to Enemy, p. 80.

  398 They were instructed: Nishida, Storied Cities, p. 210.

  398 “And it was a”: Leslie Hodson, author interview, April 4, 2003.

  398 On June 1, 1945: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 640.

  398 An escort of P-51 fighters: Kerr, Flames over Tokyo, p. 258.

  398 The curtain of smoke: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 641.

  398 Ōsaka No. 1: Philip Earl Sanders, testimony, May 1, 1946, RG 331, Box 994, NARA.

  398 According to Sawamura Masatoshi: Sawamura Masatoshi, interview by Tsujikawa Atushi, Utsumi Aiko, and Fukubayashi Tōru, December 7, 1997, and January 25, 1998, trans. for the author by Ibuki Yuka.

  398 “It was very obvious”: Dr. David Hochman, Diary, June 1, 1945, entry, courtesy David Hochman.

  399 Within thirty minutes: Hoeffer, “Hard Way Back,” p. 20.

  399 Most of the men: Sanders testimony, p. 3.

  399 The camp galley: Hoeffer, “Hard Way Back,” p. 20.

  399 The colonel’s daughter: Inouye Kiyoko, author interview, July 12, 2002, Kyōto, Japan.

  399 Some 500 men: Hoeffer, “Hard Way Back,” p. 20.

  399 Camp conditions were: ibid.

  400 “Under the present situation”: Document No. 2701, certified as Exhibit O in Doc. No. 2687, from “Journal of the Taiwan POW Camp HQ in Taihoku,” entry August 1, 1944, RG 238, Box 2015, NARA.

  400 On December 13, 1937: Chang, Rape of Nanking, p. 41.

  400 In December 1944: Kerr, Surrender and Survival, pp. 212-14. See also Sides, Ghost Soldiers, pp. 7-12.

  401 “Army Secret No. 2257”: quoted in Brackman, Other Nuremberg, p. 265.

  401 Hochman couldn’t believe: Dr. David Hochman, author interview, January 22, 2002, New York City.

  401 “Due to the nationwide food shortage”: Ienaga, Pacific War, p. 182.

  401 On June 5: “Headquarters XXI Bomber Commmand APO 234, Report of Attack on Kobe on June 5, 1945,” p. 1, MR #A 7095, AFHRC.

  401 Flying at a ground speed: ibid., p. 2.

  401 The air raid alarms: A. Ray Brashear, “Crisis over Kobe,” in Marshall, Silvester, and Stallings, Global Twentieth, pp. 3:131-32.

  403 Ten 500-pound cluster: XXI Bomber Command, “Tactical Mission Report,” Mission No. 188, June 5, 1945, pp. 1-2, APO 234, MR #B0108, AFHRC. See also Ferdinand V. Berley’s contemporaneous handwritten account, “Disposition of American Staff During Kobe POW Hosp. Fire, June 5, 1945.”

  403 “a blinding flash”: Smith, Prisoner of Emperor, p. 114.

  403 A fallen beam: Dean narrative, p. 356.

  403 “When we had been”: Lane, Summer, p. 5:9.

  403 Kōbe House was obliterated: Wigmore, Thrust, pp. 624-25.

  403 A friend of Ferid Kilki: Ferid Kilki, author interview, July 14, 2002, Kōbe, Japan.

  404 Their efforts were mostly: Irvin, “Wartime Reminiscences,” p. 7. 404 From Kasugano Avenue: Kiyoko Tomonaga, “Running Away on the Elevated Road,” Kōbe Municipal Archives, trans. for the author by Ibuki Yuka.

  404 Araki Kiyoshi threw: Araki Kiyoshi, interview by Ishii Shinpei, March 17, 2002, Kōbe, Japan, trans. for the author by John Junkerman.

  404 But over on Mt. Nunobiki: Shiun, “The Torn Talisman on My Chest,” Kōbe Municipal Archives, Kōbe, Japan.

  405 By late afternoon: Berley, “Kobe POW Hosp. Fire.”

  405 In less than an hour: Coox, “Strategic Bombing,” p. 339.

  405 Between 150 and 160 Japanese interceptors: Katchadoor Kapeghian, author interview, May 17, 2003, Charlotte, N.C.

  405 In all, nine B-29s: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 641.

  405 Since the bombing: USSBS, “Effects of Air Attack on Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto,” p. 157.

  405 The largest urban area: ibid., p. 159.

  Chapter 24: Darkness Before Dawn

  407 Fred and John remained behind: Bookman, “In the Matter of Inadequate Means of Transportation,” p. 2.

  407 Seventeen of them: Ferdinand V. Berley, interview by Jan K. Herman, p. 41.

  408 Fred pleaded with Ōhashi: ibid.

  408 In the middle of: Richard Bolster, “Rice Is Life,” Hospital Corps Quarterly 20 (April-June 1947), pp. 3-6.

  409 Later that day: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, pp. 641-42.

  409 Also known as Kawasaki: Lane, Summer, p. 5:10.

  409 Two million reside
nts: Caidin, Torch to Enemy, p. 157.

  409 In Phase 2: ibid.

  409 Ten more patients: Bookman, “In the Matter of Inadequate Means of Transportation,” p. 2.

  410 “The day is near”: Hoyt, Japan’s War, p. 403.

  410 On June 19: William McGaffin, “Captives Raise Flag in Osaka, Kobe,” Chicago Daily News, September 7, 1945, p. 2.

  411 The camp was plagued: Investigation of Prisoner of War Camp Kawasaki Maruyama, January 22, 1946, GHQ/SCAP Records, Investigation Division Report No. 166, January 1946-June 1948, RG 331, Box 1767, Folder 18, NARA.

  411 fleas sucked the blood: Dr. Julien Goodman quoted in Waterford, Prisoners of Japanese, p. 204.

  411 When the doctors: See W. S. Baer, “The Treatment of Chronic Osteomyelitis with the Maggot Larvae of the Blowfly,” Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 13 (1931), p. 438.

  411 The larvae of blowflies: Ferdinand V. Berley, report, March 19, 1946, p. 9.

  411 By the summer of: USSBS, Summary Report Pacific War, p. 20.

  411 By then, the government: Johnston, Japanese Food Management, p. 164.

  411 Nearly a quarter: Frank, Downfall, p. 351.

  411 Civilians were told: Havens, Valley of Darkness, p. 129.

  411 Elsewhere in Japan: Fukubayashi Toru, author interview, July 2002, Kyōto, Japan.

  412 POWs received 70 grams: Bookman, “In the Matter of Inadequate Medical Supplies,” p. 3.

  412 In Western Europe: Keys et al., Biology, p. 1:xv.

  412 Undernourished since MacArthur: Beecher, “Experiences,” p. 9.

  412 A loss of 25 to 30 percent: Keys et al., Biology, p. 1:106.

  412 Most human beings: ibid., 1:18.

  412 Starvation lowers blood pressure: See Keys et al., Biology, pp. 1:130-31, 138, 142, 170-71, 187-89; pp. 2:447, 665, 676, 691,693 695, 703, 706-7, 758, 762.

  412 The POWs grew anxious: Norman Q. Brill, “Neuropsychiatric Examination of Military Personnel Recovered from Japanese Prison Camps,” Bulletin of the U.S. Army Medical Department, April 1946, pp. 431-32.

  413 “A beautiful rosebush”: Bolster, “Rice Is Life,” pp. 3-6.

  414 “I remember musing”: ibid.

  414 They were caught, tried: Page, “Report on Period Served,” pp. 5-6.

  414 Operation Iceberg succeeded: Keegan, Encyclopedia, p. 190.