455 “even those who had”: Beecher, “Experiences,” pp. 140-41.
455 The steering gear: Weller, “Yanks Machine-Gunned from Jap Prison Ship,” from “Cruise of Death.”
455 Jack Schwartz couldn’t: Lawton, Some Survived, p. 166.
455 One U.S. Navy pilot strafed six: Weller, “Death Ship Goes Aground,” from “Cruise of Death.”
455 Another waggled his wings: Weller, “Yanks Machine-Gunned.”
456 The 1,333 prisoners who: Wright, Captured, p. 96.
456 Raw from sunburn: Peart, Journal, p. 4
456 Hayes and Cecil Welch worked: Lawton, Some Survived, p. 173.
456 The fifteen sickest men: J. V. Crews and R. J. Hostetter, “Prisoners’ Voyage of Doom,” Hospital Corps Quarterly 20-21, (1947-48), p. 34.
456 “How shall I”: Lawton, Some Survived, p. 6
456 Once in San Fernando: U.S.A. vs. Junsaburo Toshino, Shusuke Wada, Kazutane Aihara, Shin Kajiyama, Suketoshi Tanou, Jiro Ueda, Hisao Yoshida, February 25, 1947, SCAP File No. 014.13, Public Relations Informational Summary No. 510.
456 On January 9: Stamp, Journey, p. 93.
456 “The carnage”: Wright, Captured, p. 123.
456 “I felt that . . . we”: Stamp, Journey, p. 95.
456 The survivors were transferred: See Michno, Hellships, pp. 258-64.
456 Of the 1,619 POWs who: ibid., pp. 316-17.
456 Roughly half: Cowdrey, Fighting for Life, p. 18.
457 “Group Four”: Henry G. Lee, “Group Four,” in Chunn, Of Rice and Men, pp. 219-20. See also Quan 59, no. 2 (August 2004), pp. 8-9.
458 On the scale of: Brackman, Other Nuremberg, p. 253.
458 According to one: Waterford, Prisoners of Japanese, p. 146.
458 E. M. Gonie and Louis Indorf: See Daws, Prisoners, p. 384.
458 Unlike the prison doctors: Lifton, Nazi Doctors, pp. 214ff.
460 Symptoms of the disorder: This short history is based on “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Evolution of a Diagnosis,” New York Times, November 20, 2001.
460-61 Kardiner described five: ibid.
461 “The real drawback”: Abram Kardiner and Herbert Spiegel, War Stress and Neurotic Illness (New York: Paul B. Hoeber, 1947), p. 5.
463 there is a growing body of research: see Christina Hoff Sommers, “The Republic of Feelings,” American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, posted January 1, 2001, www.aei.org/publications/pubID.12381/pub_detail.asp, p. 2.
463 “one of the soul’s”: Viktor E. Frankl, Man’s Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy, trans. Ilse Lasch (New York: Touchstone, 1984).
464 Peggy and Sterling Seagrave: Seagrave and Seagrave, Gold Warriors, pp. 3, 6.
464 In November 2003: Edward Jackfer, “Court Rules Against POW Lawsuits,” Quan 58, no. 4 (February 2004), pp. 3-4.
464 But of course: Kerr, Surrender and Survival, pp. 296-97.
464 Fifty years after: Daws, Prisoners, p. 390.
464 According to the late Iris: Chang, Rape of Nanking, p. 12.
464 Germany, which: Clyde Haberman, “Putting Price on Holocaust? Not Even Close,” New York Times, August 3, 2004, sec. B, p. 1.
465 I am convinced: See Frank, Downfall, p. 163.
465 “My God, what have we done?”: Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts, Enola Gay (New York: Stein and Day, 1977), pp. 264-65.
465 German U-boats targeted: ibid., pp. 88-89.
466 Germany’s blitz of Britain’s cities: ibid., p. 110.
466 The RAF retaliated: “Nazis See Battle As Fight to Finish,” New York Times, September 11, 1940, p. 1.
466 Before World War II: Quoted in Spector, Eagle Against Sun, p. 487.
466 The firebombing of: Craven and Cate, Army Air Forces, p. 617.
466 According to Martin Caidin: Caidin, Torch to Enemy, p. 158.
466 “clinched victory”: Overy, Why the Allies, p. 129.
466 “precipitated everywhere”: Peter Calvocoressi and Guy Wint, Total War: The Story of World War II (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), p. 881.
466 Between 34 and 37 percent: Condon-Rall and Cowdrey, p. 383.
466 The mortality rate: J. Segal, E. J. Hunter, and Z. Segal, “Universal Consequences of Captivity: Stress Reactions Among Divergent Populations of Prisoners of War and Their Families,” International Social Science Journal 28, no. 3 (1976), p. 594.
466 By contrast, the: Calvocoressi and Wint, Total War, p. 881.
466 But the picture: Michno, Hellships, p. 292.
466 A staggering 19,000: ibid.
466 Those who survived: B. M. Cohen and M. Z. Cooper, “A Follow-up Study of World War II Prisoners of War,” VA Medical Monograph (September), cited in Segal, Hunter, and Segal, “Universal Consequences,” p. 597.
467 Three and a half years in: Daws, Prisoners , p. 388.
467 Veterans Administration: ibid., p. 385.
467 One study found: Chang-Zern Hong, M.D., “Peripheral Neuropathy in Former Prisoners of War,” Quan 41, no. 5 (April 1987).
467 psychiatric problems: William Frank Page, The Health of Former Prisoners of War: Results from the Medical Examination Survey of Former POWs of World War II and the Korean Conflict (Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 1992), p. 98.
467 John Nardini, who: Dr. John Nardini, interview by Gavin Daws, September 22, 1984, tape 2, side 2, Gavin Daws Papers, MHI.
467 According to one VA: S. Oboler, “American Prisoners of War—An Overview,” in T. Williams, ed., Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders: A Handbook for Clinicians, cited in Page, Health of Former Prisoners, p. 99.
467 Depression was three: ibid.
467 “fulfilled the criteria”: P. B. Sutker, A. N. Allain, Jr., and D. K. Winstead, “Psychological and Psychiatric Diagnoses of World War II Pacific Theater Prisoner of War Survivors and Combat Veterans,” American Journal of Psychiatry 150, no. 2 (February 1993), pp. 240-45.
467 the psychiatric disorders: Page, Health of Former Prisoners, p. 102.
467 In many cases: Cynthia Lindman Port, Brian Engdahl, and Patricia Frazier, “A Longitudinal and Retrospective Study of PTSD Among Older Prisoners of War,” American Journal of Psychiatry 158 (September 2001), 1474-79.
468 “a heavy heart”: 468 “a heavy heart”: Ōhashi Hyōjirō to Ferdinand V. Berley, n.d. (late 1946-early 1947).
468 “I wish we were”: John Hersey, Into the Valley, quoted in Kennedy, Freedom from Fear, p. 561.
468 Indeed, Japan’s language: John W. Dower, Japan in War and Peace (New York: New Press, 1993), p. 9.
468 The Germans slaughtered: Chalmers Johnson, “The Looting of Asia,” London Review of Books 25, no. 22 (November 20, 2003), p. 3.
469 But in the larger context: Chris Hedges, War Is a Force That Gives Us Meaning (New York: Public Affars, 1992), p. 13.
469 to take no captives: Bix, Hirohito, pp. 333, 360.
469 “in order to do good”: See The Fog of War, directed by Errol Morris (Columbia TriStar, 2004).
469 The Turkish government: Hedges, War Is a Force, p. 127.
469 Croatian strongman: ibid., p. 70.
469 Japanese nationalists: quoted in Ian Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1994), p. 122.
469 Historical grievances may: Vamik Volkan, Blood Lines: From Ethnic Pride to Ethnic Terrorism (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1997), pp. 48-49.
470 Chinese soccer fans: Jim Yardley, “In Soccer Loss, a Glimpse of China’s Rising Ire at Japan,” New York Times, August 9, 2004, p. A3.
470 Transgenerational trauma: Hedges, War Is a Force, p. 72.
470 “second generation”: Eva Hoffman, After Such Knowledge: Memory, History, and the Legacy of the Holocaust (New York: Public Affairs, 2004).
470 “Play the greater game”: George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), p. 61.
470 “They seemed to lose”: Brill, “Neuropsychiatric Examination
of Military Personnel,” p. 432.
471 Ask a Japanese veteran: Arakawa Tatsuzō, interview by Ishii Shinpei, March 19, 2002, Kyōto, Japan, trans. for the author by John Junkerman.
471 Hosokawa Morihiro: Buruma, Wages of Guilt, pp. 297-98.
471 Less than a decade: Herbert P. Bix, “Japan’s New Nationalism,” in New York Times, May 29, 2001.
471 visits Yasukuni Shrine: Stephanie Strom, “Japan’s Premier Visits War Shrine, Pleasing Few,” New York Times, August 14, 2001.
472 There has been no: Buruma, Wages of Guilt, p. 243.
472 The Rape of Nanking: I am indebted to Fukubayashi Toru, a teacher at Kyōto Municipal High School and a founding member of the POW Research Network, for his research in this area.
472 The story of Allied POWs: Daws, Prisoners, pp. 24-25.
472 Is this the difference: Buruma, Wages of Guilt, p. 10.
473 Hadn’t he received: U.S.A. vs. Sotaro Murata, Headquarters Eighth Army, U.S. Army, Office of the Staff Judge Advocate, Case #155, Yokohama, February 16, 1949, p. 20.
473 She speaks in a voice: Inoue Kiyoko, author interview, July 12, 2002, Kyōto, Japan.
473 Masako adds her own: Nakato Masako and Tsuji Hideko, author interview, July 10, 2002, Kōbe, Japan.
473 When I finally meet: Ohashi Yoshihisa, author interview, Takarazuka City, Japan, July 13, 2002.
474 It is a commonplace: Jacobs, Blood Brothers, p. 7.
Epilogue
477 Article 10 of the Potsdam: Lu, Japan, p. 2:454.
477 On January 19, 1946: Dear and Foot, Oxford Companion, p. 347.
478 The defendants were: Brackman, Other Nuremberg, p. 46.
478 Class B for: ibid.
478 and Class C: John L. Ginn, Sugamo Prison, Tokyo: An Account of the Trial and Sentencing of Japanese War Criminals in 1948
by a U.S. Participant (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 1992), p. 57.
478 The emperor’s role: James, Years of MacArthur, p. 3:105.
478 “Destroy him”: ibid., p. 3:106.
478 The Joint Chiefs of Staff: Bix, Hirohito, p. 617.
478 Japan’s biological weapons: Brackman, Other Nuremberg, p. 200.
478 into Communist hands: Tien-wei Wu, “A Preliminary Review of Studies of Japanese Biological Warfare Unit 731 in the United States” (www.aiipowmia.com/731/7311study.html), p. 7.
478 “In this very courtroom”: quoted in Richard H. Minear, Victors’ Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971), p. 74.
478 Twenty-eight of Japan’s: Brackman, Other Nuremberg, p. 377.
478 Some 5,100 Japanese: James, Years of MacArthur, p. 3:102.
478 “if we’d lost the war”: LeMay quoted in Nancy Ramsey, “Strangely Hopeful in a World of War and Caprice,” New York Times, December 23, 2003, sec. E, p. 3.
479 Uchiyama Eitarō: U.S.A. vs. Eitaro Uchiyama et al., Headquarters Eighth Army, U.S. Army, Office of the Staff Judge Advocate, Case #123, Yokohama, July 2, 1948, pp. 1-9.
479 His superior, Toshino: Ginn, Sugamo, p. 193.
479 The charges against: See the closing report by Miller, report, GHQ/Arisan Maru.
479 His cell was small: This description is based on an article in the August 1947 issue of Stars and Stripes Review, quoted in Ginn, Sugamo, pp. 7-9.
479 A ten-foot-high: Ginn, Sugamo, p. 6.
480 “The moon is bright”: translation courtesy Peter Miller.
480 On April 27, 1946: Ōhashi Hyōjirjirō, Diary, trans. by Ishii Shinpei. Courtesy Ohashi Yoshihisa.
480 Ōhashi Hyōjirō was no longer: GHQ/SCAP “Clarification of Status of Former Suspected War Criminals,” RG 338, Far East Command, Sugamo Prison Files, File: Ohashi, Hyojiro, NARA.
480 Nogi Naraji: Hibbs, Tell MacArthur, p. 187.
480 “World conditions”: Santo Tomás Internee Committtee memorandum, cited in Hartendorp, Japanese Occupation, p. 2:508.
480 He had authorized the dispatch: U.S.A. vs. Naraji Nogi. See “Statement of Dr. Naraji Nogi, Japanese Army Medical Corps,” at www.oryokumaru.com/nogi.htm, p. 1.
480 Lieutenant Colonel Jack Schwartz: J. W. Schwartz to Ellis Filene, July 27, 1949.
481 Nogi’s defense attorney: Lois Taylor, “A Man Who Cared Enough,” in Honolulu Star-Bulletin, January 6, 1976.
481 Meanwhile, U.S. Army: Lisa Asato, “Treason Trial Shadows Ex-Soldier’s Life,” Honolulu Star-Bulletin, October 27, 2001.
481 By December 1958: Ginn, Sugamo, pp. 12-13.
481 “Each day: Konishi Yukio, author interview, July 15, 2002, Higashi, Japan.
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Dear, I. C. B., and M. R. D. Foot, eds. The Oxford Companion to World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
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———. Japan in War and Peace: Selected Essays. New York: New Press, 1993.
———. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1986.
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