The Great Divide
Page 75
42 Cantor, Op. cit., pp. 15–16.
43 Stark, Op. cit., pp. 148ff.
44 Cantor, Op. cit., p. 210.
CHAPTER 23: THE FEATHERED SERPENT, THE FIFTH SUN AND THE FOUR SUYUS
1 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 18.
2 Ibid, p. 154.
3 Geoffrey W. Conrad and Arthur A. Demarest, Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 26 and 29. Richard A. Diehl, Tula: the Toltec Capital of Ancient Mexico, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 1983, p. 141.
4 David Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire; Myths and Prophecies in the Aztec Tradition, Revised Edition, Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2000,pp. 104ff.
5 Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl, Op. cit., p. 132.
6 Ibid, pp. 63ff.
7 Ibid, p. 156.
8 Ibid, p. 18. See also: Fagan, From Black Land to Fifth Sun, Op. cit., p. 364.
9 Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl, Op. cit., p. 20.
10 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., p. 22.
11 Ibid, p. 23.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid, p. 38.
14 Ibid, p. 23.
15 Aveni, People and the Sky, Op. cit., p. 141.
16 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., pp. 17 and 29.
17 Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl, Op. cit., p. 199.
18 Ibid, pp. 44–45.
19 Ibid, p. 36.
20 Ibid, pp. 160–165.
21 Carrasco, City of Sacrifice, Op. cit., p. 78.
22 Carrasco, Quetzalcoatl, Op. cit., pp. 93–94.
23 Carrasco, City of Sacrifice, Op. cit., p. 79.
24 Ibid, p. 32.
25 Florescano, Quetzalcoatl, Op. cit., pp. 73–74.
26 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 33.
27 Carrasco, City of Sacrifice Op. cit., p. 56.
28 Ibid, p. 74.
29 Ibid, p. 141.
30 Ibid, pp. 193 and 198.
31 Arthur Joyce and Marcus Winter, ‘Ideology, Power and Urban Society in Pre-hispanic Oaxaca’, Current Anthropology, Vol. 37, No. 1 (February 1996), p. 37.
32 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., pp. 185–186.
33 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 25.
34 Ibid, p. 41.
35 Ibid.
36 Ibid, p. 44. The (London) Times, 23 May 2011, p. 12.
37 Ibid, p. 46.
38 Ibid, p. 48.
39 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., p. 97.
40 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 53.
41 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., p. 100.
42 Benson and Cook (editors), Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, Op. cit., p. 17.
43 Tierney, The Highest Altar, Op. cit., p. 28.
44 Tierney, Op. cit., p. 117.
45 Benson and Cook (editors), Op. cit., p. 17.
46 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., p. 91.
47 Fagan, Op. cit., p. 48.
48 Tierney, Op. cit., pp. 178 and 203.
49 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., p. 115.
50 Ibid, p. 102.
51 Tierney, Op. cit., p. 30.
52 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., p. 110.
CONCLUSION: THE SHAMAN AND THE SHEPHERD: THE GREAT DIVIDE
1 J.H. Parry, The Age of Reconnaissance: Discovery, Exploration and Settlement, 1450–1650, London: Cardinal/Sphere, 1973, p. 35.
2 Parry, Op. cit., p. 46.
3 Appendix 2, available online, discusses the literature on the similar development of complex societies.
4 Conrad and Demarest, Religion and Empire, Op. cit., p. 196.
5 Ibid, p. 206.
6 Art Wolf and Ghillean Prance, Rainforests of the World: Water, Fire, Earth and Air, Op. cit., p. 281.
7 Calvin Luther Martin, In the Spirit of the Earth, Op. cit., p. 58.
8 Peregrine Horden and Nicholas Purcell, The Corrupting Sea, Op. cit., p. 417.
9 Ibid, p. 419.
10 Florescano, Quetzalcoatl, Op. cit., p. 42.
11 Conrad and Demarest, Op. cit., pp. 72–74.
12 Florescano, Op. cit., pp. 93–94 and 98.
13 Aveni, Op. cit., p. 191.
14 Peter Bellwood, Man’s Conquest of the Pacific, New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1979, p. 198.
15 Bourget and Jones, The Art and Archaeology of the Moche, Op. cit., pp. 43–44.
APPENDIX 1: THE (NEVER-ENDING) DISPUTE OF THE NEW WORLD
1 Geoffrey Simcox and Blair Sullivan, Christopher Columbus and the Enterprise of the Indies: A Brief History with Documents, Boston and New York: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2005, p. 31. The ‘Columbian exchange’, and its consequences, is now the subject of a new study: Charles C. Mann, 1493: How the Ecological Collision of Europe and the Americas Gave Rise to the Modern World, London, Random House, 2011.
2 J.H. Elliott, The Old World and the New, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press/Canto, 1970/1992,pp. 9–10.
3 Elliott, Op. cit., p. 11.
4 Margaret R. Greer, et al., Rereading the Black Legend: The Discourse of Religion and Racial Difference in the Renaissance Empires, Chicago and London: Chicago University Press, 2007, p. 1.
5 Greer et al., Op. cit., p. 5.
6 Anthony Pagden, European Encounters with the New World: from the Renaissance to Romanticism, New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 1993, p. 6.
7 Anthony Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man: The American Indian and the origins of comparative ethnology, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982, pp. 99 and 104.
8 Ibid, p. 84.
9 Ibid, p. 151 and Pagden, European Encounters, Op. cit., p. 167.
10 Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, Op. cit., pp. 174 and 195.
11 Pagden, European Encounters, Op. cit., p. 127.
12 Ibid, p. 5.
13 Elliott, Op. cit., p. 25.
14 Robert Wauchope (general editor), Handbook of Middle American Indians, 16 vols, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1964–76.
15 Gordon Brotherston, Book of the Fourth World: reading the native Americans through their literature, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
16 Elliott, Op. cit., p. 34.
17 Leithäuser, Op. cit., pages 165–166 for Indian drawings of these activities.
18 Elliott, Op. cit., p. 38.
19 Acosta had a theory that minerals ‘grew’ in the New World, like plants.
20 Evgenii G. Kushnarev (edited and translated by E.A.P. Crownhart-Vaughan), Bering’s Search for the Strait, Portland: Oregon Historical Society Press, 1990 (first published in Leningrad [now St Petersburg], 1968).
21 Bodmer, Op. cit., p. 67.
22 Elliott, Op. cit., p. 43.
23 Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, Op. cit., p. 39.
24 This view envisaged the Indian as one day becoming a free man but until that time arrived he must remain ‘in just tutelage under the king of Spain’. Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, Op. cit., p. 104.
25 Wright, Op. cit., p. 23. Also: Bodmer, Op. cit., pp. 143–144.
26 Pagden, The Fall of Natural Man, Op. cit., p. 45.
27 Ibid, p. 46.
28 Ibid, p. 119.
29 Elliott, Op. cit., p. 49.
30 Ibid, pp. 81 and 86.
31 Ibid, p. 95.
32 Benjamin Keen, The Aztec Image in Western Thought, New Brunswick, NJ 1971/1990, p. 261.
33 Henry Steele Commager, The Empire of Reason: how Europe imagined and America realized the enlightenment, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978, p. 83.
34 Jack P. Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America: exceptionalism and identity from 1492 to 1800, Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1993, p. 128.
35 Antonello Gerbi, The Dispute of the New World: The History of a Polemic, 1750– 1900, trs. by Jeremy Moyle, Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973,pp. 52ff.
36 Keen, Op. cit., pp. 58–60.
37 Ibid, p. 88.
38 Gerbi, Op. cit., p. 42.
39 Ibid, p. 163.
40 Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970,pp. 159–160.
41 Commager, Op. cit., p. 98.
42 Ibid, p. 99.
43 Commager, Op. cit., p. 246.
44 Keen, Op. cit., p. 297.
45 Pagden, European Encounters, Op. cit., p. 167.
46 Keen, Op. cit., p. 359.
47 Ibid, p. 417.
48 Ibid, p. 425.
49 Ibid.
50 Ibid, p. 445.
51 Ibid, p. 458.
52 Ibid, p. 456.
53 Commager, Op. cit., p. 394.
54 Miguel Asúa and Roger French, A New World of Animals: Early Modern Europeans on the Creatures of Iberian America, Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005, pp. 36–37.
55 Ibid, p. 82.
56 Ibid, p. 188.
57 Ibid, p. 229.
58 Keen, Op. cit., p. 448.
59 William M. Denevan (editor), The Native Population of the Americas in 1492, Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976/1992.
60 William H. McNeill, Plagues and Peoples, Oxford: Blackwell, 1977, p. 211.
61 Denevan, Op. cit., p. 7.
62 McNeill, Op cit., pp. 211–212.
63 Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492, Norman, OK and London: Oklahoma University Press, 1987.
64 Thornton, Op. cit., p. 39.
65 McNeill, Op. cit., pp. 50 and 201–202.
66 Thornton, Op. cit., pp. 40–41.
67 Ibid, p. 48.
68 Ibid, p. 52.
69 Kirkpatrick Sale, The Conquest of Paradise, New York: Knopf, 1991.
70 Sale, Op. cit., pp. 97–99.
71 Ibid, p. 248.
72 Ibid, p. 316.
73 Ronald Wright, Stolen Continents: The ‘New World’ Through Indian Eyes, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992, p. 128.
74 Brotherston, Op. cit., p. 77.
75 Wright, Op. cit., p. 168.
76 Ibid, p. 210.
77 Brotherston, Op. cit., p. 4.
SOURCES FOR FIGURES
Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess: Evolution of an Image, Viking Arkana, 1991, p. 33.
Juliet Clutton-Brock (editor), The Walking Larder: Patterns of Domestication, Pastoralism, and Predation, Unwin Hyman, 1989, p.285.
Anne Baring and Jules Cashford, The Myth of the Goddess: Evolution of an Image, Viking Arkana, 1991, p. 34.
Benny J. Peiser et al. (editors), ‘Natural Catastrophes during Bronze Age Civilizations: Archaeological, Geological, Astronomical and Cultural Perspectives’, British Archaeological Reports, International Series, 1998, p. 51.
Benny J. Peiser et al. (editors), Natural Catastrophes During Bronze Age Civilizations: Archaeological, Geological, Astronomical and Cultural Perspectives, British Archaeological Reports, 728, 1998, p. 61.
Benny J. Peiser et al. (editors), Natural Catastrophes During Bronze Age Civilizations: Archaeological, Geological, Astronomical and Cultural Perspectives, British Archaeological Reports, 728, 1998, p. 61.
Andrew Sherratt, ‘Alcohol and Its Alternatives’, in Jordan Goodman et al. (editors), Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology, Routledge, 1995, p. 414.
Mark David Merlin, On the Trail of the Ancient Opium Poppy, Associated Universities Press, 1984, p. 233.
Peter T. Furst, Hallucinogens and Culture, Chandler & Sharp, 1976, p. 71.
Nicholas J. Saunders, The People of the Jaguar, The Living Spirit of Ancient America, Souvenir Press, 1989, p. 74.
Nicholas J. Saunders, The People of the Jaguar, The Living Spirit of Ancient America, Souvenir Press, 1989, p. 72.
Richard L. Burger, Chavin and the Origins of Andean Civilization, 1995, p. 157.
Brian Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Kingdoms of Jade, 1991, p. 119; and/or Linda Schele and David Freidel, A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya, 1990, p. 267.
Heather Orr and Rex Koontz (editors), Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America, The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the University of California at Los Angeles, 2009, p. 108.
Heather Orr and Rex Koontz (editors), Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America, The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the University of California at Los Angeles, 2009, p. 129.
Heather Orr and Rex Koontz (editors), Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America, The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the University of California at Los Angeles, 2009, p. 271.
Heather Orr and Rex Koontz (editors), Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America, The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the University of California at Los Angeles, 2009, p. 199.
Heather Orr and Rex Koontz (editors), Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America,The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at the University of California at Los Angeles, 2009, p. 274.
Enrique Florescano, The Myth of Quetzalcoatl, 1999, pp. 166, 169 and 170 respectively.
ALSO BY PETER WATSON
The German Genius: Europe’s Third Renaissance,
the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century
Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention, from Fire to Freud
The Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the 20th Century
The Medici Conspiracy: The Illicit Journey of Looted Antiquities
From Italy’s Tomb Raiders to the World’s Greatest Museums
Sotheby’s: The Inside Story
The Death of Hitler
From Manet to Manhattan: The Rise of the Modern Art Market
Wisdom and Strength: The Biography of a Renaissance Masterpiece
The Caravaggio Conspiracy
Credits
Cover illustration © Tom Grill/Getty Images
Cover design by Chris Sergio
Maps copyright © 2012 Technical Art Services
Copyright
THE GREAT DIVIDE. Copyright © 2011 by Peter Watson. All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. By payment of the required fees, you have been granted the nonexclusive, nontransferable right to access and read the text of this ebook on-screen. No part of this text may be reproduced, transmitted, downloaded, decompiled, reverse-engineered, or stored in or introduced into any information storage and retrieval system, in any form or by any means, whether electronic or mechanical, now known or hereinafter invented, without the express written permission of HarperCollins ebooks.
First published in Great Britain in 2012 by Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
FIRST U.S. EDITION PUBLISHED 2012
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for.
ISBN: 978-0-06-167245-3
Epub Edition © JULY 2012 ISBN: 9780062196675
12 13 14 15 16 OFF/RRD 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
About the Publisher
Australia
HarperCollins Publishers (Australia) Pty. Ltd.
Level 13, 201 Elizabeth Street
Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia
http://www.harpercollins.com.au
Canada
HarperCollins Canada
2 Bloor Street East - 20th Floor
Toronto, ON, M4W, 1A8, Canada
http://www.harpercollins.ca
New Zealand
HarperCollins Publishers (New Zealand) Limited
P.O. Box 1
Auckland, New Zealand
http://www.harpercollins.co.nz
United Kingdom
HarperCollins Publishers Ltd.
77-85 Fulham Palace Road
London, W6 8JB, UK
http://www.harpercollins.co.uk
United States
HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
10 East 53rd Street
New York, NY 10022
http://www.harpercollins.com
* The details of mtDNA and the Y-chromosome research will not be given here. This research is quite well known and accessible accounts are given in many sources – for example, see Oppenheimer (1998), Wade (2007) and Wells (2007) in the Notes. Mutation rates vary according to species and sex (some studies show that males mutate four times as fast as females). One mutation in every 33 20-year generations is evolutionarily significant. Out of every 200 mutations, ~190 are neutral, ~5 are fatal and ~1 beneficial. The order of magnitude of human mutation rates is from 0.12–0.57 per base pair (of nucleotides connected by a hydrogen bond, making up the double-helix) per million years, but there is evidence that the rate has decreased since 20,000–15,000 years ago, when there was a demographic change in living patterns, when early peoples ceased to live in small, mobile, hunter-gatherer groups that may have been subject to fluctuations in populaton size, which caused bottlenecks in genetic diversity.1
* We can’t be certain, of course, that men without wives never sired children. There is some evidence that this happened in Australia.
* Johan Reinholt Forster, on Cook’s second voyage, made the same observation for what we now call Austronesian in 1774.
* Curiously, the map of the Toba explosion overlaps the course of the tsunami of Christmas time 2004, which occurred due to an earthquake at Simeulue, off the west coast of northern Sumatra, which affected most of all Sri Lanka and southern India (see map 7).
* It also helps date the Vedas: since they describe the river as ‘mighty’, when it in fact began to dwindle some 5,000 years ago, this shows that the Vedas must be a good bit older than many people thought.
* The distribution of deciduous forests around the world is confined to north and south of the tropics so does not really parallel these myths.
* The general geography of the Earth, and its effect on prehistory and history, is considered in chapters five and six.
* Recent research supports this, showing that most large mammals evolved in the Central Asian steppes shortly after 55 million years ago, during a short spell of global warming. Mammals such as horses (then the size of cats), deer, cows and dog-like predators appeared in the fossil records in China’s Hunan province and then spread into Wyoming across the land bridges that then existed.20
* The site of Monte Verde in South America remains an anomaly. Dated to 14500 BP,it boasted hearths, a store of firewood, wooden mortars with grinding stones, even three human footprints ‘where someone had walked across the soft, wet clay brought to the site for refurbishing the fire pits’. Medicinal herbs, molluscs, salt, bitumen and the remains of mastodon and palaeo-llama were also found.34 The tools there, says Thomas Dillehay, are more reminiscent of late Pleistocene technologies in Australia and parts of Asia than North America. Does this mean South America has more cultural affinity with those regions, or is it simple a sampling bias in a field where the evidence is thin?35