The Invention of News: How the World Came to Know About Itself
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40. This calculation rests on an analysis of the data in the USTC.
41. Newe Tzeittug von Padua und von vil anderen Stetten in welschen landen gelegen kurtzlich ergangen (Nuremberg, s.n., 1509); USTC 677285. Neutzeytug ausz welschen landen eyns handels fryde czu machen czwischen Bebstlicher Heyligkeit unnd dem Koenige von Franckreich durch mittel der oratores Kayserlichen Majestat der Koenige von Hyspanien und Engelant (Nuremberg: Johann Weißenburger, 1510); USTC 677019.
42. Göllner, Turcica, provides a useful, though now somewhat outdated survey.
43. Below, Chapters 4 (broadsheets) and 6 (ballads).
44. USTC 705457: ‘Von Rom geschriben an einen guten freund in Deudtschlandt'; USTC 705584: ‘Von einer glaubwirdigen person auß Bibrach einem guten freunde zugeschrieben'; USTC 705464: ‘Auß der statt Achen an einen guten freundt geschriben'; USTC 705068: ‘Von einer glaubwirdigen person entpfangen: an seinen guten freund einen geschrieben und erklehret’.
45. USTC 659718: ‘Aus gewissen Zeitungen so ausser dem feldlager uberschickt worden’.
46. Lisa Ferraro Parmelee, Good Newes from Fraunce: French Anti-League Propaganda in Late Elizabethan England (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1996).
Chapter 4 State and Nation
1. Augsburg, Magdeburg, Mainz, Passau, Strasbourg, Stuttgart and Ulm. There was also an edition in Antwerp. USTC (search Maximilian – 1486).
2. Gefangenschaft des Römischen Königs Maximilian in Brügge (Augsburg: Erhard Ratdolt, 1488). USTC 747013. A further Augsburg edition (Augsburg: Peter Berger, 1488), USTC 747014. A Nuremberg edition (Nuremberg: Marx Ayrer, 1488), USTC 747015.
3. Chapter 1, above.
4. Jean-Pierre Seguin, ‘L'information à la fin du XVe siècle en France. Pièces d'actualité sous le règne de Charles VIII’, Arts et traditions populaires, 4 (1956), pp. 309–30, 1–2; (1957), pp. 46–74; David Potter, Renaissance France at War: Armies, Culture and Society, c. 1480–1560 (Woodbridge: Boydell, 2008), pp. 255–84.
5. Three editions: ISTC it00421850; ISTC it00421880; ISTC it00421860.
6. David Potter, ‘War, Propaganda, Literature and National Identity in Renaissance France, c. 1490–1560’, in Robert Stein and Judith Pollmann (eds), Networks, Regions and Nations: Shaping Identity in the Low Countries, 1300–1650 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), pp. 173–93, here p. 188.
7. Jean-Pierre Seguin, L'information en France de Louis XII à Henri II (Geneva: Droz, 1961).
8. Frederic J. Baumgartner, Louis XII (London: Macmillan, 1996), p. 216; Michael Sherman, ‘Political Propaganda and Renaissance Culture: French Reactions to the League of Cambrai, 1509–1510’, Sixteenth Century Journal, 8 (1977), pp. 97–128.
9. Seguin, L'information en France, now enhanced by the USTC.
10. Lauro Martines, Strong Words: Writing and Social Strain in the Italian Renaissance (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), Chapter 11, ‘Crisis in the Generation of 1494’.
11. USTC; Stefano Dall'Aglio, Savonarola and Savonarolism (Toronto: Center for Reformation and Renaissance Studies, 2010).
12. USTC (search ‘Antwerp + news'). Steven Gunn, David Grummitt and Hans Cool, War, State and Society in England and the Netherlands, 1477–1559 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007).
13. Seguin, L'information en France, nos 167–70.
14. Andrew Pettegree, ‘A Provincial News Community in Sixteenth-Century France’, in his The French Book and the European Book World (Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 19–42.
15. Potter, Renaissance France at War, p. 267.
16. Ibid., p. 277.
17. Gunn, Grummitt and Cool, War, State and Society, p. 263.
18. Steven Gunn, ‘War and Identity in the Habsburg Netherlands’, in Stein and Pollman (eds), Networks, Regions and Nations, p. 160.
19. Alastair Duke, ‘From King and Country to King or Country? Loyalty and Treason in the Revolt of the Netherlands’, in his Reformation and Revolt in the Low Countries (London: Hambledon, 1990), pp. 175–97.
20. Potter, Renaissance France at War, pp. 267–8.
21. Lauren Jee-Su Kim, ‘French Royal Acts Printed before 1601: A Bibliographical Study’ (University of St Andrews PhD dissertation, 2007); Potter, Renaissance France at War, p. 262.
22. Paul L. Hughes and James F. Larkin, Tudor Royal Proclamations, 3 vols (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1969), no. 390.
23. Adam Fox, Oral and Literate Culture in England, 1500–1700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 367.
24. Wallace T. MacCaffrey, ‘The Newhaven Expedition, 1562–1563’, Historical Journal, 40 (1997), pp. 1–21.
25. Hughes and Larkin, Tudor Royal Proclamations, no. 510.
26. G. R. Elton, Policy and Police: The Enforcement of the Reformation in the Age of Thomas Cromwell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p. 134.
27. They are listed in Léon Voet, The Plantin Press (1555–1589): A Bibliography of the Works Printed and Published by Christopher Plantin at Antwerp and Leiden, 6 vols (Amsterdam: Van Hoeve, 1980–3).
28. Ordinances regulating the poultry trade can be found in Voet, The Plantin Press, nos 144, 169, 438, 528.
29. Pieter Spierenburg, The Spectacle of Suffering (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
30. Matthias Senn, Die Wickiana. Johann Jakob Wicks Nachrichtensammlung aus dem 16 Jahrhundert (Zurich: Raggi, 1975); Franz Mauelshagen, Wunderkammer auf Papier. Die “Wickiana” zwischen Reformation und Volksglaube (Zurich: Bibliotheca academica, 2011).
31. Zurich ZB, Pas II 12:76, reproduced in Walter L. Strauss, The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1550–1600, 3 vols (New York: Abaris, 1975), p. 842. Wick possessed no fewer than four separate broadsheet descriptions of this clearly notorious crime.
32. Strauss, German Single-Leaf Woodcut, pp. 246, 700, 701, 831.
33. Ibid., p. 1,086 (separate panels), Zurich ZB Pas II 27:7; ibid., 848 (narrative), Zurich ZB, Pas II 22:10.
34. A most straunge, rare, and horrible murther committed by a Frenchman of the age of too or three and twentie yeares who hath slaine and most cruelly murthered three severall persons (London: Purfoot, 1586); STC 11377.
35. Joseph H. Marshburn, Murder and Witchcraft in England, 1550–1640, as Recounted in Pamphlets, Ballads, Broadsides, and Plays (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971); Peter Lake and Michael Questier, The Antichrist's Lewd Hat: Protestants, Papists and Players in Post-Reformation England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2002), pp. 3–53.
36. J. A. Sharpe, ‘Last Dying Speeches: Religion, Ideology and Public Execution in Seventeenth-Century England’, Past and Present, 107 (1985), pp. 144–67.
37. Senn, Wickiana, p. 149.
38. Strauss, German Single-Leaf Woodcut, p. 488.
39. Jennifer Spinks, Monstrous Births and Visual Culture in Sixteenth-Century Germany (London: Chatto & Pickering, 2009); Aaron W. Kitch, ‘Printing Bastards: Monstrous Birth Broadsides in Early Modern England’, in Douglas A. Brooks (ed.), Printing and Parenting in Early Modern England (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), pp. 221–36.
40. Zurich ZB, PAS II 15:17, Strauss, German Single-Leaf Woodcut, p. 481.
41. Senn, Wickiana, pp. 216–17.
42. Ulinka Rublack, The Crimes of Women in Early Modern Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
43. Strauss, German Single-Leaf Woodcut, p. 936.
44. Ibid., p. 395, Zurich ZB PAS II 2:23; Zurich ZB PAS II 12:78. For the same event as a pamphlet, USTC 699843; ‘Shower of Wheat that Fell in Wiltshire’, in J. Paul Hunter, Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction (New York: Norton, 1990), p. 186.
45. Burkard Waldis, Eyne warhafftige und gantz erschreckliche historien (Marburg, 1551). Quoted in Joy Wiltenburg, ‘Crime and Christianity in Early Sensationalism’, in Marjorie Plummer and Robin Barnes (eds), Ideas and Cultural Margins in Early Modern Germany (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009), pp. 131–45, here p. 135.
46. Wiltenburg, ‘Crime and Christianity’, p. 140.
47.
Joy Wiltenburg, ‘True Crime: The Origins of Modern Sensationalism’, American Historical Review, 109 (2004), pp. 1,377–1,404.
48. As eloquently argued by Wolfgang Behringer, ‘Witchcraft and the Media’, in Marjorie Plummer and Robin Barnes (eds), Ideas and Cultural Margins in Early Modern Germany (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2009), pp. 217–36.
49. We record twenty-six editions published before 1600 in the USTC.
50. De lamiis et phitonicis mulieribus, twenty-five editions in Latin and German translation.
51. Max Geisberg, The German Single-Leaf Woodcut, 1500–1550 (New York: Hacker, 1974), vol. 1,206.
52. Behringer, ‘Witchcraft and the Media’, pp. 221–2.
53. Though the French scholar Jean Bodin was an important counterweight, and a firm believer in malevolent witchcraft. Johannes Weyer, Cinq livres de l'imposture et tromperie des diables, des enchantements et sorcelleries (Paris: Jacques du Puys, 1567); USTC 1465; Jean Bodin, De la demonomanie des sorciers (Paris: Jacques du Puys, 1580); USTC 1660.
54. Zwo Newe Zeittung, was man für Hexen und Unholden verbrendt hat (Basel, 1580); USTC 707209; Behringer, ‘Witchcraft and the Media’, p. 227.
Chapter 5 Confidential Correspondents
1. A point made by David Randall, Credibility in Elizabethan and Early Stuart Military News (London: Pickering & Chatto, 2008).
2. M. S. Anderson, The Rise of Modern Diplomacy, 1450–1919 (London: Longman, 1993), p. 9. The seminal texts are Garrett Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (London: Jonathan Cape, 1955), and Donald E. Queller, The Office of Ambassador in the Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1967).
3. Quoted Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy, p. 45.
4. J. K. Hyde, ‘The Role of Diplomatic Correspondence and Reporting: News and Chronicles’, in his Literacy and its Uses: Studies on Late Medieval Italy (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 217–59.
5. Donald E. Queller, Early Venetian Legislation on Ambassadors (Geneva: Droz, 1967), p. 82 (no. 43).
6. Donald E. Queller, ‘The Development of Ambassadorial Relazioni’, in J. R. Hale (ed.), Renaissance Venice (London: Faber & Faber, 1973), pp. 174–96.
7. Queller, ‘Development’, pp. 177–8.
8. Traité du gouvernement de la cité et seigneurie de Venise, in P.-M. Perret, Relations de la France avec Venise, 2 vols (Paris, 1896), II, 292.
9. Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy, pp. 135–6.
10. There has been no full study dedicated to Chapuys since Garrett Mattingly's unpublished doctoral dissertation of 1935. See Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy, pp. 232–5; Richard Lundell, ‘Renaissance Diplomacy and the Limits of Empire: Eustace Chapuys, Habsburg Imperialisms, and Dissimulation as Method’, in Tonio Andrade and William Reger (eds), The Limits of Empire: European Imperial Formations in Early Modern World History: Essays in Honour of Geoffrey Parker (Farnham: Ashgate, 2012), pp. 205–22.
11. Michael J. Levin, Agents of Empire: Spanish Ambassadors in Sixteenth-Century Italy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), p. 44.
12. Mai to Charles V, 31 July 1530; quoted Levin, Agents of Empire, p. 52.
13. Catherine Fletcher, Our Man in Rome: Henry VIII and his Italian Ambassador (London: Bodley Head, 2012); idem, ‘War, Diplomacy and Social Mobility: The Casali Family in the Service of Henry VIII’, Journal of Early Modern History, 14 (2010), pp. 559–78.
14. Levin, Agents of Empire, pp. 18–23.
15. Ibid., p. 167.
16. Frederic J. Baumgartner, ‘Henry II and the Papal Conclave of 1549’, Sixteenth Century Journal, 16 (1985), pp. 301–14.
17. Levin, Agents of Empire, p. 65.
18. Ermolao Barbaro, Epistolae, Orationes et Carmina, ed. V. Branca, 2 vols (Florence: Bibliopolis, 1943).
19. Quoted Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy, p. 188.
20. Geoffrey Parker, The Grand Strategy of Philip II (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1998), p. 214; Katy Gibbons, English Catholic Exiles in Late Sixteenth-Century Paris (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2011).
21. Parker, Grand Strategy, pp. 209–23; M. Leimon and Geoffrey Parker, ‘Treason and Plot in Elizabethan England: The Fame of Sir Edward Stafford Reconsidered’, English Historical Review, 106 (1996), pp. 1,134–58.
22. A helpful introduction to Spanish diplomatic ciphers, with some examples, can be found in an appendix to De Lamar Jensen, Diplomacy and Dogmatism: Bernardino de Mendoza and the French Catholic League (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964), pp. 231–8.
23. John Bossy, Under the Molehill: An Elizabethan Spy Story (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001).
24. René Ancel, ‘Étude critique sur quelques recueils d'avvisi’, Mélanges d'archéologie et d'histoire, 28 (1908), pp. 115–39, here p. 130.
25. Philip Beale, A History of the Post in England from the Romans to the Stuarts (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1988), p. 148. This was presumably Sir Francis Englefield, one of the most notorious of the English Catholic exiles.
26. Jensen, Diplomacy and Dogmatism, pp. 171–89.
27. Wolfgang Behringer, Im Zeichen des Merkur: Reichspost und Kommunikationsrevolution in der Frühen Neuzeit (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2003), p. 340.
28. The fundamental literature is the work of Mario Infelise, Prima dei giornali: alle origini della pubblica informazione (secoli XVI–XVII) (Rome: Laterza, 2002). See also his ‘From Merchants’ Letters to Handwritten Political Avvisi: Notes on the Origins of Public Information’, in Francisco Bethercourt and Florike Egmond (eds), Correspondence and Cultural Exchange in Europe, 1400–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 33–52, and ‘Roman Avvisi: Information and Politics in the Seventeenth Century’, in Gianvittorio Signorotto and Maria Antonietta Visceglia (eds), Court and Politics in Papal Rome, 1400–1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
29. George Holmes, ‘A Letter from Lucca to London in 1303’, in Peter Denley and Caroline Elam (eds), Florence and Italy: Renaissance Studies in Honour of Nicolai Rubinstein (London: University of London, 1988), pp. 227–33.
30. Chapter 2, above.
31. Carolyn James (ed.), The Letters of Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti (1481–1510) (Florence: Olschki, 2001); Bernard Chandler, ‘A Renaissance News Correspondent’, Italica, 29 (1952), pp. 158–63.
32. C. Marzi, ‘Degli antecessori dei giornali’, Rivista delle biblioteche e degli archivi, 24 (1913), 181–5. The translated excerpts are from Infelise, ‘Merchants’ Letters’, p. 39.
33. James, Letters of Giovanni Sabadino degli Arienti, pp. 48–50.
34. Infelise, ‘Merchants’ Letters’, pp. 39–40.
35. Jean Delumeau, Vie économique et sociale de Rome dans la seconde moitié du XVIe siècle (Paris: Boccard, 1957–9), pp. 26–79, here p. 28.
36. The Merchant of Venice, Act 3, scene 1, echoing Shylock to Bassano, Act 1, scene 3.
37. Delumeau, Vie économique et sociale de Rome, pp. 877–8.
38. Infelise, ‘Roman Avvisi’, p. 216.
39. Brian Richardson, Manuscript Culture in Renaissance Italy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), p. 159.
40. Ibid., pp. 117–21.
41. See Chapter 7 below.
42. Delumeau, Vie économique et sociale de Rome, p. 31.
43. Richardson, Manuscript Culture, p. 159.
44. Delumeau, Vie économique et sociale de Rome, p. 64.
45. See Chapter 8 below.
46. Mark Häberlein, The Fuggers of Augsburg: Pursuing Wealth and Honor in Renaissance Germany (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 2012); Jacob Strieder, Jakob Fugger the Rich: Merchant and Banker of Augsburg, 1459–1525 (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984); Götz von Pölnitz, Die Fugger (Frankfurt: Scheffler, 1960); Richard Ehrenberg, Das Zeitalter der Fugger: Geldkapital und Creditverkehr im 16. Jahrhundert (Jena: Fischer, 1922).
47. Vienna, ONB, Cod. 8949–8975; Mathilde A. H. Fitzler, Die Entstehung der sogenannten Fuggerzeitungen in der Wiener Nationalbibliothek (Baden bei Wien
: Rohrer, 1937); Oswald Bauer, Zeitungen vor der Zeitung. Die Fuggerzeitungen (1568–1605) und das frühmoderne Nachrichtensystem (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2011).
48. Ancel, ‘Étude critique’, pp. 115–39.
49. Behringer, Im Zeichen des Merkur, p. 327.