Eisenhower in War and Peace
Page 98
36. “Memorandum by the Secretary of State of a Meeting at the White House Between the President and General Eisenhower,” November 18, 1952, United States Department of State, 1 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954: General: Economic and Political Matters 25–26 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). Also see Donovan, Eisenhower 15–16.
37. DDE diary, January 6, 1953, 13 NATO 1481–83.
38. DDE to Hazlett, June 21, 1951, DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 84–88.
39. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup: The Struggle for the Control of Iran 115–16 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979).
40. Memorandum, Office of National Estimates, Central Intelligence Agency, for the President, March 1, 1953, 10 FRUS: Iran, 1952–1954 689–91.
41. Memorandum of Discussion, 135th Meeting of the National Security Council, March 4, 1953, ibid. 692–701.
42. Foreign Office 371/104614, Ministerial Visit to the U.S.: Record of meeting with President Eisenhower, March 6, 1953, EL. Also see Full Circle: The Memoirs of Anthony Eden 236 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1960).
43. Eden to WSC, March 6, 1953, Eden, Full Circle 235.
44. Memorandum of Discussion, 136th Meeting of the National Security Council, March 11, 1953, 10 FRUS: Iran, 1952–1954 711–14.
45. Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men 160.
46. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 111–12.
47. Mossadegh’s letter of May 28, 1951, is reprinted in DDE, Mandate for Change 161–62.
48. Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men 161; John Prados, Presidents’ Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Secret Operations Since World War II 95 (New York: William Morrow, 1986); Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle 297.
49. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup 18; Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle 299.
50. DDE, Mandate for Change 162.
51. Memorandum of Telephone Conversation, by the Secretary of State, July 24, 1953, 10:55 a.m., 10 FRUS: Iran, 1952–1954 737. (Emphasis added.)
52. Department of State Bulletin 178, August 10, 1953.
53. DDE, Mandate for Change 163.
54. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup 147–49. Also see Elm, Oil, Power, and Principle 301–2.
55. Donald N. Wilber, Adventures in the Middle East: Excursion and Incursions 188–89 (Pennington, N.J.: Darwin, 1986).
56. DDE, Mandate for Change 162–65.
57. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 129.
58. The American companies were Standard Oil of New Jersey, Standard Oil of California, Socony-Vacuum, Texaco, and Gulf. Later, to comply with U.S. antitrust requirements, independent oil producers were given 5 percent, which reduced the share of each of the majors to 7 percent. Shell held 14 percent, and Compagnie Française 6 percent.
59. Kinzer, All the Shah’s Men 195–96.
60. The New York Times, March 18, 2000.
61. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 333.
62. Blanche Wiesen Cook, The Declassified Eisenhower: A Divided Legacy of Peace and Political Warfare 220–21 (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1981); Halberstam, Fifties 377–79.
63. Cook, Declassified Eisenhower 224.
64. Quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 590. The government’s confiscation left United Fruit with 162,000 acres, only 50,000 of which were under cultivation. Ambrose and Immerman, Ike’s Spies 221.
65. Halberstam, Fifties 375. When Smith left the State Department in 1955, he joined the board of the United Fruit Company.
66. E. Howard Hunt, Undercover: Memoirs of an American Secret Agent 96–97 (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1974).
67. Milton Eisenhower, “Report to the President,” quoted in Richard H. Immerman, The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention 18 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1982).
68. Kermit Roosevelt, Countercoup 209–10; Kermit Roosevelt, interview by David Halberstam, cited in Halberstam, Fifties 371.
69. Halberstam, Fifties 376.
70. Eleanor Dulles, interview by Richard Immerman, October 9, 1979, cited in Immerman, CIA in Guatemala 134. Also see Halberstam, Fifties 381.
71. E. Howard Hunt, interview by Stephen Ambrose, cited in Ambrose and Immerman, Ike’s Spies 226.
72. Quoted in David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The Invisible Government 176 (New York: Random House, 1964). Also see Newsweek, March 4, 1963.
73. The New York Times, June 19, 1954.
74. The New York Times’s correspondent Sydney Gruson and his wife, Flora Lewis, were expelled from Guatemala prior to the coup to prevent them from reporting on it. For Gruson’s account, see Halberstam, Fifties 381–83.
75. Ambrose, 2 Eisenhower 195.
76. DDE, Mandate for Change 425–26.
77. Halberstam, Fifties 385.
78. Ibid. 371.
79. Allen to DDE, June 24, 1954, EL.
CHAPTER TWENTY-THREE: NEW LOOK
The epigraph is part of Eisenhower’s response to a question about defense policy at his news conference, March 17, 1954. Public Papers, 1954 330.
1. West and Kotz, Upstairs at the White House 140–41.
2. Ibid. 132.
3. Ibid. 146.
4. Ibid. 160.
5. Ibid. 141.
6. DDE, Mandate for Change 264–65.
7. DDE, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 111.
8. After World War I, mailboxes and postal trucks were painted green as an economy measure, utilizing the War Department’s surplus olive drab paint. It was scarcely a money-saving gesture to repaint them red, white, and blue. Historian, United States Postal Service.
9. West and Kotz, Upstairs at the White House 160.
10. The cottage at the Augusta National, one of seven, is known as “Mamie’s Cabin,” and is a spacious three-story white frame structure with green shutters that looks remarkably like FDR’s cottage at Warm Springs. It cost $150,000 ($1.222 million currently) and was paid for by the Gang. Perret, Eisenhower 555; Van Natta, First Off the Tee 75.
11. David and David, Ike and Mamie 216.
12. Stanley R. Wolf and Audrey (Wolf) Weiland, Ike: Gettysburg’s Gentleman Farmer 28–29 (Privately published, 2008).
13. For Arthur Nevins’s account, see Nevins, Gettysburg’s Five-Star Farmer (New York: Carlton Press, 1977). General Nevins is the brother of Columbia history professor Allan Nevins.
14. DDE, At Ease 360; Holt, Mamie Dowd Eisenhower 64. Holt cites the Elizabeth [Dorothy] Draper Papers for cost figures.
Eisenhower gave his aide Colonel Schulz precise instructions as to how his study should be arranged. One entire wall, said Ike, should be fitted with bookshelves.
The top shelf should be approximately six feet from the floor. I think the shelves should be 12 inches high and about 12 inches deep. Books should be divided as follows:
a. Encyclopedia and reference works
b. Professional military books of all kinds
c. Histories
d. Biographies
e. Art, including technical books on the art of painting.
f. Classics in literature
g. Fiction
1. Historical novels
2. General popular fiction
3. Anything that I keep that could be classed as Westerns
h. Miscellaneous
Eisenhower to Colonel Robert L. Schulz, May 13, 1955, The Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower, vol. 16, The Presidency 1710–11. Cited subsequently as 16 The Presidency.
15. Perret, Eisenhower 602.
16. Wolf and Weiland, Ike 66–80.
17. DDE, State of the Union Address, February 2, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 17.
18. Radio-Television Address on National Security and Its Costs, May 19, 1953, Public Papers, 1953 306–16.
19. Press Conference, March 16, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 56–57.
20. Bradley to Secretary of Defense Wilson, March 19, 1953, quoted in Robert R. Bowie and Richard H. Immerman, Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy 102 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
21. DDE to Hazlett, November 14, 1951, DDE, Ike
’s Letters to a Friend 93.
22. DDE to Hazlett, August 20, 1956, ibid. 167–69.
23. DDE to Joseph Dodge, December 1, 1953, 15 The Presidency 710–12.
24. DDE, Mandate for Change 452.
25. Stephen Jurika, Jr., ed. From Pearl Harbor to Vietnam: The Memoirs of Admiral Arthur W. Radford 326 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press). Also see The New York Times, December 15, 1953.
26. John Foster Dulles, “Evolution of Foreign Policy,” speech to the Council of Foreign Relations, January 12, 1954, Department of State Press Release 8, 1954. For Eisenhower’s role in writing the speech, see Bowie and Immerman, Waging Peace 199.
27. Press Conference, January 13, 1954, Public Papers, 1954 58.
28. Quoted in Robert Gilpin, American Scientists and Nuclear Weapons Policy 123, 130 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1962).
29. Perret, Eisenhower 460. Also see The New York Times, November 11, 1953.
30. The Diary of James C. Hagerty: Eisenhower in Mid-Course, 1954–1955 181–84, Robert H. Ferrell, ed. (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983). Cited subsequently as Hagerty Diary.
31. Memorandum of Conference with the President, February 24, 1955, EL.
32. Memorandum of Conference with the President, March 30, May 24, 1956, EL.
33. In 1960, Maxwell Taylor published The Uncertain Trumpet, which was highly critical of Eisenhower’s defense policy. The book was cited frequently by Democratic candidates during the campaign. Maxwell D. Taylor, The Uncertain Trumpet (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1960).
34. Henry Kissinger, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957). The book grew out of a study under the auspices of the Council on Foreign Relations, for which Kissinger was the director. His 1961 book, The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1961), makes the same argument more concisely.
35. Quoted in Colin L. Powell and Joseph E. Persico, My American Journey 576 (New York: Random House, 1995). Secretary Albright expressed the view during a National Security Council discussion of U.S. policy in Bosnia. “I thought I would have an aneurysm,” said Powell.
36. DDE, Mandate for Change 491–92.
37. Special Message to the Congress on Education, January 27, 1958, Public Papers, 1958 127–32.
38. In the Senate, Richard Neuberger picked up the seat in Oregon held by Republican Guy Cordon.
39. Caro, Master of the Senate.
40. Adams, Firsthand Report 86.
41. Caro, Master of the Senate 521.
42. D. B. Hardeman and Donald C. Bacon, Rayburn: A Biography 377 (Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1987). Also see Donovan, Eisenhower 312.
43. Hardeman and Bacon, Rayburn 378.
44. The Dallas Morning News, January 3, 1953.
45. Quoted in Richard Rovere, The Eisenhower Years: Affairs of State 203–4 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Cudahy, 1956).
46. Ann Whitman diary, July 1, 1960, EL.
47. DDE, Mandate for Change 493.
48. Quoted in Donovan, Eisenhower 312. Cf. Ewald, Eisenhower the President 28–29.
49. Ewald, Eisenhower the President 189; Milton Eisenhower, The President Is Calling 338.
50. Public Papers, 1954 479.
51. Hagerty Diary 14 (February 5, 1954).
52. DDE, At Ease 166–67.
53. Jean Edward Smith, Lucius D. Clay 618–19.
54. Hagerty Diary 193–95 (February 16, 1955).
55. Special Message to Congress Regarding a National Highway Program, February 22, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 275–80.
56. DDE, speech in Wheeling, W.Va., September 24, 1952, quoted in Steven Wagner, Eisenhower Republicanism: Pursuing the Middle Way 5 (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2006).
57. Blanche Wiesen Cook private papers.
58. DDE, Mandate for Change 459–62.
59. Ibid. 464.
60. DDE to Gruenther, July 2, 1954, 16 The Presidency 422–23.
61. DDE, Mandate for Change 465.
62. Special Message to the Congress Regarding United States Policy for the Defense of Formosa, Public Papers, 1955 207–11.
63. The operative portion of the Formosa Resolution (84th Cong., 1st sess., H.J. Res. 159) reads as follows:
Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That:
The President of the United States be and he hereby is authorized to employ the Armed Forces of the United States as he deems necessary for the specific purpose of securing and protecting Formosa and the Pescadores against armed attack, this authority to include the securing and protection of such related positions and territories of that area now in friendly hands and the taking of such other measures as he judges to be required or appropriate in assuring the defense of Formosa and the Pescadores.
This resolution shall expire when the President shall determine that the peace and security of the area is reasonably assured by international conditions created by action of the United Nations or otherwise, and shall so report to the Congress.
64. Hagerty Diary 197.
65. DDE, Mandate for Change 477–78.
66. Press Conference, March 23, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 358.
67. DDE, Mandate for Change 478–79. Also see 15 Facts on File 98.
68. DDE diary, March 26, 1955, Eisenhower Diaries 296.
69. DDE, Mandate for Change 480.
70. 15 Facts on File 137.
71. Press Conference, April 27, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 425–26.
72. Ambrose, Eisenhower: Soldier and President 384.
73. DDE, Mandate for Change 483.
74. Robert Divine, Eisenhower and the Cold War 65–66 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981).
CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR: HEART ATTACK
The epigraph is from Eisenhower’s statement to the staff at Fitzsimmons Army Hospital in Denver upon his release, November 11, 1955. Public Papers, 1955 840–41.
1. Quoted in Rovere, Eisenhower Years 276.
2. Harold Macmillan, Tides of Fortune, 1945–1955 586–87 (New York: Harper and Row, 1969).
3. DDE, Mandate for Change 506.
4. Quoted in Lyon, Eisenhower 650.
5. Quoted in Parmet, Eisenhower and the American Crusades 404.
6. Ibid.
7. Adams, Firsthand Report 176.
8. DDE to Hazlett, June 4, 1955, Ike’s Letters to a Friend 146.
9. Radio and Television Address to the American People Prior to Departure for the Big Four Conference at Geneva, July 15, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 701–5.
10. Richard H. Rovere, The Eisenhower Years: Affairs of State 276–77 (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Ludahy, 1956).
11. Ibid. 291.
12. Eden, Full Circle 345.
13. Quoted in Rovere, Affairs of State 283.
14. DDE, Mandate for Change 525. Eisenhower’s memoirs differ significantly from the obvious pleasure he exuded at his press conference on July 27, 1955, pertaining to his lunch with Zhukov. Public Papers, 1955 742.
15. Charles Bohlen notes, luncheon meeting of Eisenhower and Zhukov, July 20, 1955, EL.
16. Statement on Disarmament Presented at the Geneva Conference, July 21, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 713–16. (Eisenhower’s emphasis.)
17. DDE, Mandate for Change 521.
18. Donovan, Eisenhower 350; Townsend Hoopes, The Devil and John Foster Dulles 297 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1973); The New Yorker, July 27, 1955.
19. Closing Statement at the Final Meeting of the Heads of Government Conference, July 23, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 721–23.
20. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, July 25, 1955, 16 The Presidency 1792–93. One of the most perceptive treatments of the impact of the Reagan-Gorbachev meeting in Geneva is presented by Beth Fischer in The Reagan Reversal: Foreign Policy at the End of the Cold War 46–50 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1997).
21. Gallup poll, August 6, 1955.
22. T
he New York Times, August 29, 1955. Also see James Reston, Sketches in the Sand 420 (New York: Knopf, 1967).
23. DDE to Nikolai Aleksandrovich Bulganin, July 27, 1955, 16 The Presidency 1794–95.
24. Macmillan, Tides of Fortune.
25. The New York Times, March 20, 1956.
26. Rovere, Affairs of State 309.
27. DDE, Eisenhower Diaries 288.
28. Ibid. 288–91.
29. DDE to Milton Eisenhower, December 11, 1953, 15 The Presidency 759–60.
30. DDE to Hazlett, December 8, 1954, ibid. 1434–38.
31. Remarks to the Bull Elephants Club, August 2, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 748–53. The request of the Bull Elephants is on page 753.
32. Press Conference, August 4, 1955, ibid. 760.
33. Ann Whitman diary, September 23, 1955, EL.
34. DDE to LBJ, September 23, 1955, Johnson Library, Austin, Tex.
35. Quoted in Clarence G. Lasby, Eisenhower’s Heart Attack: How Ike Beat Heart Disease and Held On to the Presidency 71 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997).
36. DDE, Mandate for Change 536.
37. The comment is that of General Leonard Heaton, Oral History, EL.
38. DDE diary, November 20, 1954, Eisenhower Diaries 288.
39. DDE to the Adjutant General, June 8, 1955, EL.
40. A verbatim transcript of the September 24 news conference is reprinted in U.S. News and World Report 66, October 7, 1955.
41. The New York Times, September 25, 1955. Also see U.S. News and World Report, October 7, 1955.
42. James Rowley to Chief U.S. Secret Service, September 26, 1955, EL.
43. Paul Dudley White, My Life and Medicine: An Autobiographical Memoir 175–94 (Boston: Gambit, 1971).
44. Quoted in Donovan, Eisenhower 373.
45. Remarks on Leaving Denver, November 11, 1955, Public Papers, 1955 840–41.
46. Remarks Upon Arrival at the Washington National Airport, November 11, 1955, ibid. 481.
47. Hagerty Diary 240–46. Eisenhower, who had developed something of a father-son relationship with Hagerty, admired his press secretary’s political acumen and discussed presidential possibilities freely with him. These discussions are reported at length in Hagerty’s diary entries of December 10, 11, 12, and 14, 1955, and are the basis for the paragraphs above.