Toleration and Tolerance in Medieval European Literature
Page 10
21 Georgeta Vancea, Tolerance und Konflikt (2008).
22 Glenn Tinder, Tolerance: Toward a New Civility (1976).
23 Alexander Mitscherlich, Toleranz – Überprüfung eines Begriffs (1974; 1985); Uwe Schultz, Toleranz: die Krise der demokratischen Tugend und sechzehn Vorschläge zu ihrer Überwindung (1974).
24 Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter, ed. Bernard Lewis and Friedrich Niewöhner (1992); Juden, Christen und Muslime: Religionsgespräche im Mittelalter, ed. Matthias Lutz-Bachmann and Alexander Fidora (2004); Helmut Zander, “Europäische” Religionsgeschichte (2016).
25 Norbert Winkler, “Toleranz im Mittelalter?” (1991), 857.
26 Carey J. Nederman, “Modern Toleration through a Medieval Lens: A ‘Judgmental’ View” (2016): 1–26, online at: DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198786368.003.0001 (last accessed on December 29, 2017). He does not, however, engage specifically with the conflict among the three religions or with racial clashes. Instead, his concern is focused on ‘judgmental toleration,’ that is, permission, the legitimate use of deception in the political arena, natural law, the use of reasonable judgment in political and military endeavors, and the evaluation of sodomy and heresy in legal terms. For the very opposite view concerning the deep rift between the Middle Ages and the eighteenth century with its principle of liberalism, see Perez Zagorin, How the Idea of Toleration Came to the West (2003). His arguments, however, seem very difficult to maintain in light of latest research demonstrating the strong connection between medieval philosophers and theologians on the one hand, and eighteenth-century intellectuals, on the other. I will also fundamentally challenge his claims throughout this book without picking at specific points here and there because the emphasis rests on the discovery of toleration and tolerance in the Middle Ages and the early modern age.
27 Jeremy Cohen, Living Letters of the Law: Ideas of the Jew in Medieval Christianity (1999); Peter Dinzelbacher, “Toleranz bei Bernhard von Clairvaux?” (2002); Jews in Medieval Christendom: Slay Them Not, ed. Kristine T. Utterback and Merrall Llewelyn Price (2013). This topic has been discussed widely, and the relevant research literature on this topic is legion.
28 Winkler, “Toleranz im Mittelalter?” (1991), 858.
29 Paul and Pierette Girault de Coursac, Louis XVI et la question religieuse pendant la Révolution (1988); Discrimination and Tolerance in Historical Perspective, ed. Guðmundur Hálfdanarson (2008).
30 Religiöse Toleranz: Dokumente zur Geschichte einer Forderung, ed. Hans R. Guggisberg (1984); Simone Zurbuchen, Naturrecht und natürliche Religion (1991).
31 Jay Newman, Foundations of Religious Tolerance (1982), 7.
32 Newman, Foundations of Religious Tolerance (1982), 10–14.
33 Newman, Foundations of Religious Tolerance (1982), 15–16.
34 See, for instance, Simone Zurbuchen, Naturrecht und natürliche Religion (1991); Aufgeklärte Zeiten? Religiöse Toleranz und Literatur, ed. Romana Weiershausen, Insa Wilke, and Nina Gülcher (2011); Religiöse Toleranz: 1700 Jahre nach dem Edikt von Mailand, ed. Martin Wallraff (2016).
35 Simone Zurbuchen, Naturrecht und natürliche Religion (1991); Toleration in Enlightenment Europe, ed. Ole Peter Grell and Roy Porter (2000); Benjamin J. Kaplan, Divided by Faith: Religious Conflict and the Practice of Toleration in Early Modern Europe (2007); Jonathan I. Israel, A Revolution of the Mind (2010); the literature on this topic is really legion.
36 Cary J. Nederman, Worlds of Difference: European Discourse of Toleration, c. 1100–c. 1550 (2000), 3.
37 Margaret C. Jacob, Strangers Nowhere in the World: The Rise of Cosmopolitanism in Early Modern Europe (2006).
38 Cary J. Nederman, Worlds of Difference (2000), 4.
39 Eva Baumkamp, Kommunikation in der Kirche des 3. Jahrhunderts (2014).
40 Werner Heinz, “Toleranz – Akzeptanz – Versöhnung” (forthcoming).
41 Walther Ludwig, Beispiele interkonfessioneller Toleranz im 16. – 18. Jahrhundert (2010); Diversity and Dissent: Negotiating Religious Difference in Central Europe, 1500–1800, ed. Howard Louthan, Gary B. Cohen, and Franz A. J. Szabo (2011).
42 Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Reformation, ed. Ole Peter Grell (1996).
43 Ernst Benz, Beschreibung des Christentums (1975), 160–61.
44 See, for instance, Werner Heinz, “Toleranz – Akzeptanz – Versöhnung” (forthcoming).
45 For reflections on the discourse on tolerance in the late Middle Ages, see Anna A. Akasoy, “Zur Toleranz gegenüber dem Islam bei Lullus und Cusanus” (2005), 105–24.
46 Cary J. Nederman, Worlds of Difference (2000), 25–26.
47 Cary J. Nederman, “Introduction: Discourses and Contexts of Tolerance in Medieval Europe” (1998),13–24; here 20.
48 See Hans-Dietrich Kahl, “Der sog. ‘Ludus de Antichristo’ (De finibus saeculorum) als Zeugnis frühstauferzeitlicher Gegenwartskritik (1991): 53–148. For a text edition with a German translation, see Ludus de Antichristo: Lateinisch und Deutsch, trans. and epilogue by Rolf Engelsing (1968; 2000). Jerzy Strzelczyk, “Z dziejów teorii i praktyki tolerancii w średniowieczu” (2004), 268, highlights the early tendencies toward tolerance in this text, although the term ‘toleration’ might be better here. The central issue, however, focuses on the internal turmoil affecting all of Christianity, endangered by false friends (hypocrisy and deception), whereas the pagans and the Jews simply present their own faith and state calmly why they are not Christians. I would like to thank Strzelczyk for his help with the Polish and for alerting me to his contributions on this topic.
49 Kahl, “Der sog. ‘Ludus de Antichristo’” (1991), 66.
50 Christopher Hatch MacEvitt, The Crusades and the Christian World of the East (2008).
51 Peter W. Edbury and John G. Rowe, William of Tyre (1988).
52 William of Tyre, A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea, trans. Emily A. Babcok and A. C. Krey (1943). International scholarship has dealt with this phenomenon already a number times, see, for instance, Ernst-Dieter Hehl, “Crusade Ideology and Tolerance: Studies on William of Tyre” (1978): 104–106; Rainer Christoph Schwinges, Kreuzzugsideologie und Toleranz (1977); id., “Multikulturalität in den so genannten Kreuzfahrerstaaten des 12. und 13. Jahrhunderts” (2014), 339–69; cf. also Jerzy Strzelczyk, “Z dziejów teorii i praktyki tolerancii w średniowieczu. Trzy przykłady” (2004), 265–72 (orig. 2000). He cites also the relevant German research on this topic, note 4. Most recently, he addressed this issue once again, “Średniowieczna krytyka wypraw krzyźowych” (2016), 11–28. As Strzelczyk emphasizes, William recognized the deep religious devotion and piety among the Muslims, whom he identified as monotheists, although he still clearly rejected Islam as the wrong faith. Moreover, there were many examples of highly honorable, generous, just, and idealistic individuals among the Muslims who clearly feared God. All treatises between Christians and Muslims had to be observed (pacta sunt observanda), and if the Christians betray the Muslims, the latter are entitled to defend themselves (bellum iustum), and this even in the Holy Land. Finally, William held positive views of the Oriental Christian churches and urged his readers to tolerate Jews (266–67).
53 Rainer Christoph Schwinges, “William of Tyre, the Muslim Enemey, and the Problem of Tolerance” (2001), 125–27.
54 Rainer Christoph Schwinges, “Kreuzzugsideologie und Toleranz im Denken Wilhelms von Tyrus” (1974): 367–85. He concludes that William was, especially in comparison with crusader preachers such as Bernard of Clairvaux, a truly humanistic alternative in the dealing with the non-Christian world (368).
55 William of Tyre, Chronicon, ed. R. B. C. Huygens (1986), 167; 20.31. See also Hannes Möhring, “Heiliger Krieg und politische Pragmatik: Saldinus Tyrannus” (1983): 417–66; Thomas Rödig, Zur politischen Ideenwelt Wilhelms von Tyrus (1990), 72–77.
56 See, for example, Miri Rubin, Gentile Tales: The Narrative Assault on Late Medieval Jews (1999); Leonhard B. Glick, Abraham’s Heirs: Jews and Christians in Medieval Europe (1999); Lia Lampert, Gender and
Jewish Difference from Paul to Shakespeare (2004); Christians and Jews in Angevin England: The York Massacre of 1190, ed. Sarah Rees Jones and Sethina Watson (2013). For a contrastive perspective, see Joseph Shatzmiller, Cultural Exchange: Jews, Christians, and Art in the Medieval Marketplace (2013). See also Miriamne Ara Krummel, “Jewish Culture and Literature in England” (2015), 772–93.
57 Juden, Christen und Muslime. Religionsdialoge im Mittelalter, ed. Matthias Lutz-Bachmann and Alexander Fidora (2004); Martin John D., Representations of Jews in Late Medieval and Early Modern German Literature (2004); Albrecht Classen, “Complex Relations Between Jews and Christians in Late Medieval German and Other Literature” (2013), 313–38; see now the excellent catalog accompanying an exhibition, Zu Gast bei Juden: Leben in der mittelalterlichen Stadt, ed. Dorothea Weltecke (2017).
58 Jeremy Cohen, Living Letters of the Law: Ideas of the Jew in Medieval Christianity (1999). See also Robert Chazan, The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom, 1000–1500 (2006).
59 See, for instance, the highly useful anthology, Wege zur Toleranz: Geschichte einer europäischen Idee in Quellen, ed., intro., and explained by Heinrich Schmidinger (2002).
60 Ludovicus Mills, The Pagan Middle Ages (1998). The case of Lithuania, which converted to Christianity only as late as in the fourteenth century once the Grand Duke Jagiello (or Jogaila) had accepted Poland’s invitation to marry the Queen Jadwiga and so to ascend to its throne in 1385 and to rule both countries in personal union, would be a striking case in point. Jagiello’s cousin closely collaborated with him in the process of Christianization, after he himself had been baptized in Cracow on February 15, 1386. Nevertheless, paganism continued for centuries to come especially among the rural population. S. C. Rowell, Lithuania Ascending: A Pagan Empire within East-Central Europe, 1295–1345 (1994); Crusade and Conversion on the Baltic Frontier, 1150–1500, ed. Alan V. Murray (2001); Darius Baronas and S. C. Rowell, The Conversion of Lithuania: From Pagan Barbarians to Late Medieval Christians (2015).
61 Peter Dinzelbacher, Unglaube im “Zeitalter des Glaubens”: (2009). See also the much older, yet still valuable study by Fritz Mauthner, Teufelsfurcht und Aufklärung im sogenannten Mittelalter (1922).
62 See the contributions to Magic and Magicians in the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Time, ed. Albrecht Classen (2017).
63 See, for instance, Michael Borgolte, Europa entdeckt seine Vielfalt, 1050–1250 (2002), 242–95.
64 Miriam Bastian and Mareike Hartmann, “Feste und Spiel: Geselliges Beisammensein zwischen Juden und Christen” (2017), 159–63.
65 David Garrioch, The Huguenots of Paris and the Coming of Religious Freedom, 1685–1789 (2014).
66 Frank Puaux, Les Précurseurs français de la tolérance au xviie siècle (1881; 1970); Coexister dans l’intolérance: l’édit de Nantes (1598), ed. Michel Grandjean (1998); see now The Adventure of Religious Pluralism in Early Modern France, ed. Keith Cameron (2000); L’édit de Nantes, sa révocation et ses conséquences, ed. Julien Molard (2007).
67 See Paul J. Morman, Nöel Aubert de Versé: A Study in the Concept of Toleration (1987); Perez Zagorin, How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West (2003), offers a more global perspective, providing a universal overview of how the discourse on tolerance slowly developed over the centuries. See now the contributions to Discourses of Tolerance and Intolerance in the European Enlightenment, ed. Hans Erich Bödeker, Clorinda Donato, and Peter Reill (2009).
68 https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bayle/ (last accessed on December 29, 2017).
69 Hannelore Gärtner, “Zur Geschichte der Lexikographie der Encyclopédie” (1976), 98–99. See also the digital edition: http://artfl-project.uchicago.edu/node/60 (last accessed on December 29, 2017); Sebastian Neumeister, “Unordnung als Methode: Pierre Bayles Platz in der Geschichte der Enzyklopädie” (995), 188–99.
70 Rainer Forst, “Toleranz” (2010), 1753–58; here 1754–55.
71 See the contributions to Vernunftreligion und Offenbarungsglaube: zur Erörterung einer seit Kant verschärften Problematik, ed. Norbert Fischer and Jakub Sirovátka (2015).
72 Johann Heinrich Zedler, “Tolerantz, die Tolerantz einer Religion; oder widriger Religions=Verwandten” (17451962), 1115–17.
73 Encyclopedie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres. Mis en ordre et publié par Diderto. Vol. 16 (1765), 390–95. This is, of course, the famous encyclopedia published by Jean-Baptiste le Rond, also known as D’Alambert, and Denis Diderot; see Die Welt der Encyclopédie: Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, ed. Anette Selg and Rainer Wieland (2001). The first volume appeared in 1751, the last one in 1780. I have translated these quotes myself, but I appreciate the help which I then received from my colleague Elizabeth Zegura, University of Arizona. The Encyclopedie is also available in English translation online at: https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn= main;view=text;idno=did2222.0000.619 (last accessed on December 29, 2017).
74 G. Schlüter/R. Gröker, “Toleranz” (1998), 1251–62.
75 See now Werner Heinz, “Toleranz – Akzeptanz – Versöhnung,” (forthcoming).
76 Klaus Schreiner, “‘Tolerantia’: Begriffs- und wirkungsgeschichtliche Studien zur Toleranzauffassung des Kirchenvaters Augustinus” (1998), 335–89.
77 See also Norbert Winkler, “Toleranz im Mittelalter?” (1991), 863–65.
78 Jan-Dirk Müller, “Citra pietatis dispendium: Erasmus von Rotterdam und das Problem der Toleranz vor dem konfessionellen Zeitalter” (2015), 11–41. See the review of this volume in sehepunkte 17.9 (2017), online at: www.sehepunkte.de/2017/09/28153.html (last accessed on December 29, 2017).
79 Heinz, “Toleranz – Akzeptanz – Versöhnung” (forthcoming). Luther stated specifically: “Was sollen wir Christen nun tun mit diesem verworfenen verdammten Volk der Juden?.… Wir müssen mit Gebet und Gottesfurcht eine scharfe Barmherzigkeit üben.… Erstens, dass man ihre Synagogen oder Schulen mit Feuer anstecke” (What shall we Christians now do with this cursed, damned people of the Jews?.… We must practice with prayers and fear of God a harsh form of mercy.… First, we ought to set fire to their synagogues or schools). Quoted from Judith Krasselt-Maier, Luther: Gottes Wort und Gottes Gnade (2012), 30 (see Luther’s works, WA 53 [Von den Juden und ihren Lügen, 1543], 522,29 – 523,1. The issue of tolerance in Luther’s work proves to be rather complex and fluid, since his position dramatically changed over time. In his early years he explicitly promoted a form of toleration, but he soon turned into a rabid Antisemit. See Was heißt hier Toleranz?: Interdisziplinäre Zugänge, ed. Andrea Bieler and Henning Wrogemann (2014).
80 Joseph Lecler, Histoire de la Tolérance au siècle de la réforme (1955).
81 See Schmidinger, ed., Wege zur Toleranz (2002). See also the contributions to Toleranz im Mittelalter, ed. Alexander Patschovsky and Harald Zimmermann (1998). Here the focus rests on historical conditions under which certain forms of tolerance/toleration could be practiced, such as in the Crusader States, in the medieval kingdom of Sicily, in Hungary, in eastern Europe where Germans had settled, Hussite Bohemia, and the multicultural Poland.
82 Gerhard Besier, “Toleranz” (1990; 2004), 445–523.
83 John Christian Laursen, “Toleration” (2005), 2335–42.
84 Laursen, “Toleration” (2005), 2335.
85 Heinrich Fichtenau, Heretics and Scholars in the High Middle Ages, 1000–1200 (1992 1998).
86 Caesarius of Heisterbach, “Tales Illustrating the Miraculous Power of the Sacraments and the Religious Ideas of the Common People,” Readings in European History, ed. James Harvey Robinson, Vol. 1 (1904), 365. This specific passage, so relevant for our argument, is not contained in the now standard edition, Caesarius von Heisterbach, Dialogus miraculorum = Dialog über die Wunder, intro. by Horst Schneider. Trans. and commentary by Nikolaus Nösges and Horst Schneider (2009). It remains unclear what source Robinson actually drew from.
88 Sascha Ragg, Ketzer und Recht: die weltliche Ketzergesetzgebung des Hochmittelalters unter dem Einfluß des römischen und kanonischen Rechts (2006); Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R. I. Moore, ed. Michael Frassetto (2006); Kathrin Utz Tremp, Von der Häresie zur Hexerei: “wirkliche” und imaginäre Sekten im Spätmittelalter, 2008); Caterina Bruschi, The Wandering Heretics of Languedoc (2012). See also Gerhard Rottenwöhrer, Lexikon der mittelalterlichen “Ketzer” (2009).
89 Klaus Schreiner, “Lang- und mittelfristige Voraussetzungen des modernen Toleranzbegriffs”, (1990; 2004), 601.
90 Schreiner, “Lang- und mittelfristige Voraussetzungen” (1990/2004, 605.
91 Gustav Mensching, Tolerance and Truth in Religion, trans. H.-J. Klimkeit (1955; 1971). Mensching studied under Rudolf Otto and was deeply influenced by his ideas about the numinosum (‘das Heilige’). For critical comments, see Peter Gerlitz, “Toleranz: III. Religionsgeschichtlich” (2002) 668–76. See also Gustav Mensching, Essays zur Toleranz und Wahrheit in den Weltreligionen (2005).