Foundations of the American Century
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101. Gedmin and Kennedy, “Selling America, Short.”
102. Robert Kagan, “Power and Weakness,” Policy Review (June 2002). In GMF’s Annual Report, 2003, Kennedy notes the importance of greater recognition of the need for European military development, within NATO, and America’s increasing appreciation of “soft power,” such as foreign aid and better knowledge of “skills… to operate effectively in the Islamic world.”
103. Gedmin and Kennedy, “Selling America, Short.” Colin Powell was secretary of state in the first George W. Bush administration (2001–2004). Immediately following 9/11, Powell commissioned the Madison Avenue advertiser Charlotte Beers to rebrand US foreign policy; she resigned in 2002.
104. Kennedy omits mention of the failure of the U.S. administration to grant the protections of the U.S. constitution to detainees and violations of the Geneva Convention.
105. Gedmin and Kennedy, “Selling America, Short.”
106. President Obama’s national security strategy, published in May 2010, bears a close resemblance to the PPNS Final Report.
107. The PPNS’s Final Report, Forging a World of Liberty Under Law (2006), claims that its conclusions are drawn from the findings of “both reason and social science” (58). http://www.princeton.edu/~ppns/report.html.
108. PPNS, Final Report, 9; R. Pape, “The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 3 (2003): 343–361.
109. http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ppns/mission.html.
110. Anne-Marie Slaughter, currently director of the State Department’s policy planning staff, was dean of the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs and professor of international politics at Princeton University. Prior to this, she was a professor of politics at Harvard. She is a board member of the CFR. She recently wrote A New World Order (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2004). G. John Ikenberry is a professor of politics at Princeton.
111. http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ppns/mission.html. Emphasis added.
112. Lake and Shultz, “Foreword” to the PPNS Final Report, 2.
113. For full details, see Inderjeet Parmar, “Foreign Policy Fusion,” International Politics 46, no. 2/3 (March 2009): 177–209.
114. R. Brym, Intellectuals and Politics (London: Allen and Unwin, 1980).
115. W. Kristol, “Postscript—June 2004: Neoconservatism Remains the Bedrock of U.S. Foreign Policy,” in Irwin Stelzer, ed., Neoconservatism (London: Atlantic Books, 2004), 75–76. Yet Kristol’s assessment may be overblown: neocons’ rhetoric became broadly acceptable only after 9/11, when it offered conservative Americans and liberal interventionists a readymade language with which to wield influence.
116. J. A. Thompson, “Another Look at the Downfall of ‘Fortress America,’” Journal of American Studies (December 26, 1992).
117. M. P. Leffler, A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration, and the Cold War (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992); G. A. Kolko, The Politics of War: Allied Diplomacy and the World Crisis of 1943–1945 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969); D. Campbell, Writing Security (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1992).
118. J. W. Sanders, Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment (Boston: South End Press, 1983).
119. S. Rosato, “The Flawed Logic of the Democratic Peace Theory,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 4 (2003): 585–602.
120. Andrew O’Neil, “American Grand Strategy: The Quest for Permanent Primacy,” in B. O’Connor and M. Griffiths, eds., The Rise of Anti-Americanism (London: Routledge, 2006).
121. Stephen Walt, “Woodrow Wilson Rides Again,” http://bookclub.tpmcafe.com/blog/bookclub/2006/oct/10.
122. J. Der Derian, “Decoding the National Security Strategy of the United States,” Boundary 30, no. 3 (2003): 19–27.
123. Walt, “Woodrow Wilson Rides Again.”
124. Ibid., 7.
125. Ibid., 2, 4.
126. Ibid., 4.
127. John Lloyd, “The Anglosphere Project,” New Statesman (March 13, 2000). Interestingly, Christopher Hitchens, writing about Robert Conquest, a champion of the Anglosphere, now considers the idea positively: see the Wall Street Journal, February 3, 2007.
128. S. Anderson, Race and Rapprochement (London: Associated Universities Presses, 1981).
129. I. Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004), 71–72, 195–196.
130. Policy Planning Staff Memorandum, Washington, May 4, 1948, National Archives and Records Administration, RG 273, Records of the National Security Council, NSC 10/2. Top Secret; RG 59, Records of the Department of State, Policy Planning Staff Files 1944–47: lot 64 D 563, box 11.
131. E. Quinones, “Project Aims to ‘Kindle Debate’ on U.S. National Security,” Princeton Weekly Bulletin (October 16, 2006).
132. Yet deeper still, it is clear that postwar modernization theory itself—as championed by Walt Rostow, for example—was based on an explicit belief in the inevitable relative decline of American power over time. This emphasized the need on America’s part to ensure the globalization of American values and institutions within a benign international environment enabling the United States to flourish; see Simon Bromley, American Power and the Prospects for International Order (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008).
133. Indeed, the American social sciences were “born in the service of the modern state, and they evolved in a way that left them quite closely, if often invisibly, tied to the purposes and institutions of states.” Lisa Anderson, Pursuing Truth, Exercising Power: Social Sciences and Public Policy in the Twenty-first Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 5.
134. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/national_security_strategy.pdf.
135. David Szanton, ed., The Politics of Knowledge: Area Studies and the Disciplines (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
136. RF Annual Report (2002); emphasis added.
137. http://www.rockfound.org; Global Inclusion Program, 2004. The goal of the Global Inclusion Program is “to help broaden the benefits and reduce the negative impacts of globalization on vulnerable communities, families and individuals around the world.”
138. RF Web site; Assets and Capacities Program, 2003.
139. RF Web site; Southeast Asia Regional Program, 2004.
140. RF Web site; Bellagio Program, 2003. No details of level of financing are available.
141. “Statement by Gordon Conway, President, The Rockefeller Foundation,” October 25, 2001; RF Web site.
142. CC Grants for Globalization Initiatives; International Peace and Security Program; CC Web site.
143. Ibid.
144. CC International Peace and Security Program: Global Engagement; CC Web site.
145. CC Grants, International Peace and Security Program, 2004; CC Web site.
146. CC Grants, Carnegie Scholars Program, 2003; CC Web site.
147. CC Grants, Special Opportunities Fund; CC Web site.
148. CC Grants, Carnegie Scholars Program, 2003; CC Web site.
149. All grant information is for the CC grants database at http://carnegie.org/grants/grants-database.
150. David Jhirad, Claudia Juech, and Evan S. Michelson, “Foresight for Smart Globalization,” Foresight 11, no. 4 (2009): 1013; http://www.altfutures.com/pro_poor_foresight/Foresight_For_Smart_Globalization.pdf.
151. For the definitive works on soft power, see Joseph Nye, Soft Power (New York: Public Affairs, 2004); and I. Parmar and M. Cox, eds., Soft Power and U.S. Foreign Policy (London: Routledge, 2010).
9. CONCLUSION
1. Ronald Radosh, Prophets on the Right (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975), argues that American expansionism was opposed on both the left and right wings of U.S. politics.
2. Edward H. Berman, The Influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller Foundations on American Foreign Policy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 19
83), 31.
3. Harold Laski, “Foundations, Universities, and Research,” in Harold Laski, ed., The Dangers of Obedience (New York: Harper, 1930), 171, 174.
4. RF Annual Report (2008); http://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/uploads/files/901c639d-bf3f-43d2-9975-5d98d02d0be8-rfar_2008.pdf.
5. David Jhirad, Claudia Juech, and Evan S. Michelson, “Foresight for Smart Globalization,” Foresight (2009): 1.
6. “Persons of the Year,” Time (December 26, 2006). Emphasis added.
7. Raj Patel, Eric Holt-Gimenez, and Annie Shattuck, “Ending Africa’s Hunger,” The Nation 21 (September 2009). According to the Seattle Times (October 17, 2006), “at the core [of the Gates Foundation] is faith in the power of science and technology to improve lives,” http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2003308397_gateshires17.html.
8. Maureen Baehr, “New Philanthropy Has Arrived—Now What?” in Susan Raymond and Mary Beth Martin, eds., Mapping the New World of World of American Philanthropy: The Causes and Consequences of the Transfer of Wealth (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley and Sons, 2007), 82.
9. Obama’s appointee to the Food and Drug Administration, Michael Taylor, was vice president for public policy at Monsanto from 1998 to 2001 and champion of biotechnology policies in the Clinton administration; Isabella Kenfield, “Monsanto’s Man in the Obama Administration, with an Eye on Africa,” http://www.foodfirst.org/en/node/2515.
10. Patel, Holt-Gimenez, and Shattuck, “Ending Africa’s Hunger.”
11. Eric Holt-Gimenez, “Out of AGRA: The Green Revolution Returns to Africa,” Development 51, no. 4 (2008): 464–471. Holt-Gimenez shows how AGRA focuses on market-led, genetically engineered crop strategies.
12. Patel, Holt-Gimenez, and Shattuck, “Ending Africa’s Hunger.”
13. Renewing American Leadership in the Fight Against Global Poverty and Hunger (Chicago: Chicago Council on Global Affairs, 2009). AGRA is now allied to the Millennium Challenge Corporation set up by President George W. Bush.
14. Tanya Kersson, “Gates Agriculture Speech Highlights Sustainability but Falls Short,” October 26, 2009, http://www.foodfirst.org/en/node/2608. There are also strong concerns about the technocratic character of the Gates Foundation’s global health programs, the annual expenditures of which actually exceed the budget of the World Health Organization; D. McCoy, G. Kembhavi, J. Patel, and A. Luintel, “The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation’s Grant-Making Programme for Global Health,” Lancet 373 (May 9, 2009).
15. James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1998), 6.
16. Ibid., 7.
INDEX
Page numbers refer to the print edition but are hyperlinked to the appropriate location in the e-book.
AAS. See Association for Asian Studies
Abizaid, John, 235
Aboyade, Ojetunji, 171, 175–76, 316n111
Absolute Weapon, The (Brodie), 76
academia: Michael Doyle agenda in, 231; Ford Foundation funding of, 132; policy-oriented seminar of, 74–75; trustees representation in, 52, 54
Academy for the Development of Philanthropy in Poland (ADPP), 228
Academy of Christian Humanism (ACH), 217–18
Acheson, Dean, 35, 56
ACIS. See American Committee for International Studies
ACLS. See American Council of Learned Societies
ADPP. See Academy for the Development of Philanthropy in Poland
Africa: Africans not involved in development of, 156–57; American foundations consideration of, 154–57; CC funding center in, 315n100; NAS research on, 161–62; new leadership needed in, 152; U.S. significance of, 151–54. See also Nigeria
African Americans, 82, 258–59
African Heritage Studies Association (AHSA),165
African studies: American foundations importance of, 158; building networks for, 157–60; Ford Foundation benefactor of, 158; foundations contributing to, 153; graduation programs in, 167–68; grant for, 311n45; Nigerian programs in, 169–78; U.S. Army and, 161–62; in U.S., 150–51
African Studies Association (ASA), 150, 153–54, 313n65; black members rebellion of, 164–65; CC grant funding, 160–64; reforming, 165–66
AGRA. See Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa
AHSA. See African Heritage Studies Association
AIPR. See American Institute of Pacific Relations
Albright, Madeleine, 234
Aldrich, Winthrop W., 47–48
Allen, H. C., 113
Allende, Salvador, 185, 190, 199, 208–9
Allende government, 203–6
Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA), 263
Allison, Graham T., 246
Allport, Gordon W., 101
American Committee for International Studies (ACIS), 73, 280n43, 286n133
American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS), 116
American foundations: African considerations of, 154–57; African studies importance to, 158; anti-Americanism and, 98–99, 103; Chile influenced by, 181–82, 196–97; democratic accountability and, 31–32; foreign policy resetting backed by, 223; foreign policy role of, 3–6; globalization supported by, 227; global knowledge networks strengthened by, 227–28; international organizations generated by, 92; Nigerian ethnic tensions exacerbated by, 177–78; Nigerian plans of, 170; professionally elite universities from, 11–12
American Institute of Pacific Relations (AIPR), 85; as ACIS member, 286n133; CC funding, 85–87; CEIP funding program of, 86–87; Economic Handbook of the Pacific Area by, 87; U.S. conferences organized by, 86; World War II outbreak and, 285n127
American studies programs, 29, 121, 291nn16–17, 296n83; anti-American prejudices addressed through, 121; CC approving university, 101–3; egalitarian vision and, 296n86; foundations promoting, 121; U.S. promotion of, 117–18
American values, 58–59, 100–103, 243, 337n132
America’s Strategy in World Politics: The United States and the Balance of Power (Spykman), 71
Anglo-Saxons, 62–63
Anglosphere, 94, 249, 289n182
Anheier, Helmut, 5
Anspach, Ralph, 141
anti-Americanism, 29, 98, 100, 102, 120; American foundations and, 98–99, 103; American studies programs addressing prejudices of, 121; George W. Bush combating, 238–42; combating, 118; foundations charges of, 290n6; misunderstanding in, 253–54
anticommunist containment doctrine, 244
anticommunist massacre, 145–46
anti-Nazism, 80
anti-Sukarno elite, 135–36, 258
antiwar party, 81
Armstrong, H. F., 77
Army, U.S., 161–63, 312n55
Arnove, Robert, 12, 14
Aron, Raymond, 120
ASA. See African Studies Association
Ashby Commission, 170
Asian studies network, 127–30
Association for Asian Studies (AAS), 130
Aylwin, Patricio, 206
Azikewe, Nnamdi, 161
BAAS. See British Association for American Studies
Background of Our War, The, 75
Baker, Lynn, 163, 312n52
balance, 69
Baldwin, Hanson, 72
Baldwin, William H., 62
Ball, George, 184
Baraona, Pablo, 205
Bardon, Alvaro, 202, 205
Barnard, Chester I., 48
Barnett, A. Doak, 134
Beard, Charles, 90, 261
Beautiful Berkeley Boys, 137–42, 194, 258
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, 234–35
Bell, Daniel, 110, 119
Bell, Peter, 190, 193, 204, 208, 210, 215
Beloff, Max, 113
Bemis, Samuel F., 69
Bennett, Harry, 46
Bennett, William J., 240
Bereuter, Doug, 239
Berger, Mark, 185
Berman, Edward H., 3
Berresford, Susan, 57
Biden, Joe, 245, 251
Bidwell, Percy, 88
Big 3 foundations, 2; American hegemony promoted by, 28; American values ingrained in, 58–59; capitalist globalization promoted by, 254–55; democratic liberal features of, 32; experience and connections of, 56–57; fictions about, 5; global hegemony influence of, 264–65; international network-building initiatives of, 91–95; neo-Gramscian perspective contrasted with, 24–25; political attacks on, 34
Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation (GF), 1–2, 225, 262–63
Bingham, Barry, 112
Bin Laden, Osama, 239
black American scholars, 157
black colleges, 167
black fellows, 168–69
black members rebellion, 164–65
Blair, Tony, 239
Bolling, Landrum, 11–12
Bond, Horace Mann, 161
Bork, Ellen, 240
Bourdieu, Pierre, 8
Bowles, Chester, 152
Bowman, Isaiah, 72, 78, 93
Brazilian Society of Agricultural Economics, 12
Bresnan, J., 125, 146, 300n13, 300n15
Bretton Woods system, 93, 226
Britain: CCF’s political impact in, 119; missionaries from, 309n9; policies of, 315n103; U.S. relationship with, 111
British Association for American Studies (BAAS): administration of, 297n94; RF’s initial funding of, 111–12; U.S. knowledge spread by, 115; USIA funding, 114–15
Brock, William, 113
Brodie, Bernard, 70, 76
Brown, Dyke, 128
Brown, Gordon, 289n182
Brown, Richard, 153
Brym, Robert, 8–10, 245
Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 246
Buckley, Karen, 321n40
Buell, Raymond Leslie, 83
Buffet, Warren, 262
Buger, C., 233
Bulmer, Martin, 4
Bundy, McGeorge, 55, 109, 145–46, 210, 320n44
Bundy, William P., 77
Burke, Edmund, 271n65
Burnham, James, 106
Burnham, Walter Dean, 246
Bush, George H. W., 232, 239
Bush, George W., 57, 222; anti-Americanism combated by, 238–42; Iraq War of, 242; neoconservative orientations of, 248–49
Bush Doctrine, 230, 247
Butler, Nicholas Murray, 52, 66
Buttrick, Wallace, 61