The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean

by David Abulafia

  33. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 173.

  34. Arthur, Naples, p. 12.

  35. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, pp. 173–4; G. D. R. Sanders, ‘Corinth’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, pp. 647–8.

  36. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 28.

  37. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, pp. 174, 190–91; C. Foss, Ephesus after Antiquity: a Late Antique, Byzantine and Turkish City (Cambridge, 1979); M. Kazanaki-Lappa, ‘Medieval Athens’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, pp. 639–41; Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 60.

  38. W. Ashburner, The Rhodian Sea-law (Oxford, 1909).

  39. C. Foss and J. Ayer Scott, ‘Sardis’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 615; K. Rheidt, ‘The urban economy of Pergamon’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 624.

  40. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 38; J. W. Hayes, Late Roman Pottery (Supplementary Monograph of the British School at Rome, London, 1972) and Supplement to Late Roman Pottery (London, 1980); C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 720–28.

  41. Arthur, Naples, p. 141; Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 191.

  42. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, p. 72.

  43. Morrisson and Sodini, ‘Sixth-century economy’, p. 211.

  44. F. van Doorninck, Jr, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, in Laiou (ed.), Economic History of Byzantium, vol. 2, p. 899; A. J. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces (British Archaeological Reports, International series, vol. 580, Oxford, 1992), no. 782, p. 301.

  45. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks, no. 1001, pp. 372–3.

  46. Van Doorninck, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, p. 899.

  47. Parker, Ancient Shipwrecks, no. 1239, pp. 454–5.

  48. Van Doorninck, ‘Byzantine shipwrecks’, p. 899.

  49. Parker, Ancient shipwrecks, no. 518, p. 217.

  PART THREE

  THE THIRD MEDITERRANEAN, 600–1350

  1. Mediterranean Troughs, 600–900

  1. H. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne (London, 1939) – cf. R. Hodges and D. Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe (London, 1983); R. Latouche, The Birth of the Western Economy: Economic Aspects of the Dark Ages (London, 1961).

  2. M. McCormick, The Origins of the European Economy: Communications and Commerce AD 300–900 (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 778–98.

  3. A. Laiou and C. Morrisson, The Byzantine Economy (Cambridge, 2007), p. 63.

  4. T. Khalidi, The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature (Cambridge, MA, 2001).

  5. Hodges and Whitehouse, Mohammed, Charlemagne, pp. 68–9; D. Pringle, The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest (British Archaeological Reports, International series, vol. 99, Oxford, 1981); on Byzantine ships: J. Pryor and E. Jeffreys, The Age of the : The Byzantine Navy ca 500–1204 (Leiden, 2006).

  6. X. de Planhol, Minorités en Islam: géographie politique et sociale (Paris, 1997), pp. 95–107.

  7. S. Sand, The Invention of the Jewish People (London, 2009), pp. 202–7.

  8. Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne; A. Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean A.D. 500–1100 (Princeton, NJ, 1951); McCormick, Origins, p. 118; P. Horden and N. Purcell, The Corrupting Sea: a Study of Mediterranean History (Oxford, 2000), pp. 153–72 (p. 154 for ‘the merest trickle’); also C. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400–800 (Oxford, 2005), pp. 821–3.

  9. McCormick, Origins, p. 65; Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p. 164.

  10. Horden and Purcell, Corrupting Sea, p. 163.

  11. Ibid., pp. 164–5; S. Loseby, ‘Marseille: a late Roman success story?’ Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 82 (1992), pp. 165–85.

  12. E. Ashtor, ‘Aperçus sur les Radhanites’, Revue suisse d’histoire, vol. 27 (1977), pp. 245–75; Y. Rotman, Byzantine Slavery and the Mediterranean World (Cambridge, MA, 2009), pp. 66–8, 74.

  13. Cf. J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), p. 138.

  14. M. Lombard, The Golden Age of Islam (Amsterdam, 1987), p. 212: Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, pp. 66–7.

  15. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), p. 417.

  16. McCormick, Origins, pp. 668, 675; Rotman, Byzantine Slavery, p. 73.

  17. P. Sénac, Provence et piraterie sarrasine (Paris, 1982), p. 52.

  18. Pryor, Geography, Technology, pp. 102–3.

  19. J. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power: a Reassessment of Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Seafaring Activity (London, 1991), p. 113.

  20. Ibid., pp. 114–15.

  21. G. Musca, L’emirato di Bari, 847–871 (Bari, 1964); Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 116.

  22. Sénac, Provence et piraterie, pp. 35–48; J. Lacam, Les Sarrasins dans le haut moyen âge français (Paris, 1965).

  23. Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , pp. 446–7.

  24. J. Pryor, ‘Byzantium and the sea: Byzantine fleets and the history of the empire in the age of the Macedonian emperors, c.900–1025 CE’, in J. Hattendorf and R. Unger (eds.), War at Sea in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 83–104; Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , p. 354; Pryor, Geography, Technology, pp. 108–9.

  25. Pryor and Jeffreys, Age of the , pp. 333–78.

  26. Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, p. 110.

  27. McCormick, Origins, pp. 69–73, 559–60.

  28. M. G. Bartoli, Il Dalmatico, ed. A. Duro (Rome, 2000).

  29. F. C. Lane, Venice: a Maritime Republic (Baltimore, MD, 1973), pp. 3–4.

  30. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, pp. 690, 732–3; McCormick, Origins, pp. 529–30.

  31. Lane, Venice, pp. 4–5.

  32. Sources in Haywood, Dark Age Naval Power, pp. 195, nn. 88–94.

  33. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, p. 690.

  34. Lane, Venice, p. 4.

  35. Cf. Wickham, Framing the Early Middle Ages, pp. 73, 75.

  36. McCormick, Origins, pp. 361–9, 523–31.

  37. P. Geary, Furta Sacra: Thefts of Relics in the Central Middle Ages (Princeton, NJ, 1978).

  38. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 65–7.

  39. McCormick, Origins, pp. 433–8.

  40. Cf. Lewis, Naval Power and Trade in the Mediterranean, pp. 45–6.

  41. McCormick, Origins, pp. 436, 440, 816–51.

  2. Crossing the Boundaries between Christendom and Islam, 900–1050

  1. S. Reif, A Jewish Archive from Old Cairo: the History of Cambridge University’s Genizah Collection (Richmond, Surrey, 2000), p. 2 and fig. 1, p. 3.

  2. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), p. 7; cf. the puzzling title of Reif’s Jewish Archive.

  3. S. Shaked, A Tentative Bibliography of Geniza Documents (Paris and The Hague, 1964).

  4. Reif, Jewish Archive, pp. 72–95.

  5. On Byzantium: J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009).

  6. R. Patai, The Children of Noah: Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Times (Princeton, NJ, 1998), pp. 93–6; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 280–81.

  7. Shaked, Tentative Bibliography, no. 337.

  8. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), pp. 421–3.

  9. M
ercantile contacts: Holo, Byzantine Jewry, pp. 201–2.

  10. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 429.

  11. Shaked, Tentative Bibliography, nos. 22, 243 (wheat), 248, 254, 279, 281, 339, etc., etc.

  12. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 229–48, 257–8.

  13. S. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy in the Cairo Geniza documents’, Archivio storico per la Sicilia orientale, vol. 67 (1971), p. 14.

  14. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa’, p. 431; Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 102.

  15. O. R. Constable, Trade and Traders in Muslim Spain: the Commercial Realignment of the Iberian Peninsula 900–1500 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 91–2.

  16. Ibid., p. 92.

  17. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 10, 14, 16.

  18. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 111; Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, p. 31.

  19. Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 20–23.

  20. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 311–12, 314, 317, 325–6; Goitein, ‘Sicily and southern Italy’, pp. 28–30.

  21. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 315–16.

  22. Ibid., pp. 319–22.

  23. Reif, Jewish Archive, p. 167.

  24. P. Arthur, Naples: from Roman Town to City-state (Archaeological Monographs of the British School at Rome, vol. 12, London, 2002), pp. 149–51.

  25. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, pp. 8–9; B. Kreutz, ‘The ecology of maritime success: the puzzling case of Amalfi’, Mediterranean Historical Review, vol. 3 (1988), pp. 103–13.

  26. Kreutz, ‘Ecology’, p. 107.

  27. M. del Treppo and A. Leone, Amalfi medioevale (Naples, 1977), the views being those of del Treppo.

  28. G. Imperato, Amalfi e il suo commercio (Salerno, 1980), pp. 38, 44.

  29. C. Wickham, Early Medieval Italy: Central Power and Local Society 400–1000 (London, 1981), p. 150; on Gaeta: P. Skinner, Family Power in Southern Italy: the Duchy of Gaeta and its Neighbours, 850–1139 (Cambridge, 1995), especially pp. 27–42 and p. 288.

  30. Imperato, Amalfi, p. 71.

  31. H. Willard, Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino and the Ties between Montecassino and Amalfi in the Eleventh Century (Miscellanea Cassinese, vol. 37, Montecassino, 1973).

  32. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia’, p. 12.

  33. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, 6:1.1.

  34. J. Riley-Smith, The Knights of St John in Jerusalem and Cyprus, 1050–1310 (London, 1967), pp. 36–7.

  35. C. Cahen, ‘Un texte peu connu relative au commerce orientale d’Amalfi au Xe siècle’, Archivio storico per le province napoletane, vol. 34 (1953–4), pp. 61–7.

  36. A. Citarella, Il commercio di Amalfi nell’alto medioevo (Salerno, 1977).

  3. The Great Sea-change, 1000–1100

  1. S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), p. 14.

  2. Ibid., pp. 10–11 (with a rather more positive view of its harbour).

  3. Ibid., pp. 22–3.

  4. D. Abulafia, ‘Southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia in the medieval Mediterranean economy’, in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993), essay i, p. 24.

  5. Ibid., pp. 25–6.

  6. J. Day, La Sardegna sotto la dominazione pisano-genovese (Turin, 1986; = J. Day, ‘La Sardegna e i suoi dominatori dal secolo XI al secolo XIV’, in J. Day, B. Anatra and L. Scaraffia, La Sardegna medioevale e moderna, Storia d’Italia UTET, ed. G. Galasso, Turin, 1984), pp. 3–186; F. Artizzu, L’Opera di S. Maria di Pisa e la Sardegna (Padua, 1974).

  7. Epstein, Genoa, pp. 33–6.

  8. Cf. A. Greif, Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade (Cambridge, 2006), p. 229; also L. R. Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (Berkeley, CA, 1949).

  9. Epstein, Genoa, pp. 19–22, 41; Greif, Institutions, p. 230.

  10. G. Rösch, Venedig und das Reich: Handels- und Verkehrspolitische Beziehungen in der deutschen Kaiserzeit (Tübingen, 1982).

  11. S. A. Epstein, Wills and Wealth in Medieval Genoa, 1150–1250 (Cambridge, MA, 1984).

  12. D. Abulafia, The Two Italies: Economic Relations between the Norman Kingdom of Sicily and the Northern Communes (Cambridge, 1977), pp. 11–22.

  13. Q. van Dosselaere, Commercial Agreements and Social Dynamics in Medieval Genoa (Cambridge, 2009).

  14. D. Abulafia, ‘Gli italiani fuori d’Italia’, in Storia dell’economia italiana, ed. R. Romano (Turin, 1990), vol. 1, p. 268; repr. in D. Abulafia, Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean, 1100–1500 (Aldershot, 1993); D. Nicol, Byzantium and Venice: a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 33, 41.

  15. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 52.

  16. H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘The Mahdia campaign of 1087’, English Historical Review, vol. 92 (1977), pp. 1–29, repr. in H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London, 1984), essay xii.

  17. S. D. Goitein, A Mediterranean Society: the Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza, vol. 1, Economic Foundations (Berkeley, CA, 1967), pp. 196–200, 204–5.

  18. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, p. 8.

  19. D. Abulafia, ‘Asia, Africa and the trade of medieval Europe’, Cambridge Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, Trade and Industry in the Middle Ages, ed. M. M. Postan, E. Miller and C. Postan (2nd edn, Cambridge, 1987), pp. 464–5.

  20. Abulafia, Two Italies, p. 40.

  21. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, pp. 18, 22.

  22. D. Abulafia, ‘The Pisan bacini and the medieval Mediterranean economy: a historian’s viewpoint’, Papers in Italian Archaeology, IV: the Cambridge Conference, part iv, Classical and Medieval Archaeology, ed. C. Malone and S. Stoddart (British Archaeological Reports, International Series, vol. 246, Oxford, 1985), pp. 290, repr. in D. Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100–1400 (London, 1987), essay xiii.

  23. Cowdrey, ‘Mahdia campaign’, p. 28, verse 68; also p. 21.

  24. G. Berti, P. Torre et al., Arte islamica in Italia: i bacini delle chiese pisane (catalogue of an exhibition at the Museo Nazionale d’Arte Orientale, Rome; Pisa, 1983).

  25. Abulafia, ‘Pisan bacini’, p. 289.

  26. Ibid., pp. 290–91; J. Pryor and S. Bellabarba, ‘The medieval Muslim ships of the Pisan bacini’, Mariner’s Mirror, vol. 76 (1990), pp. 99–113; G. Berti, J. Pastor Quijada and G. Rosselló Bordoy, Naves andalusíes en cerámicas mallorquinas (Palma de Mallorca, 1993).

  27. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, p. 306.

  28. Pastor Quijada in Naves andalusíes en cerámicas mallorquinas, pp. 24–5.

  29. Goitein, Mediterranean Society, vol. 1, pp. 305–6.

  30. D. Abulafia, ‘The Crown and the economy under Roger II and his successors’, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, vol. 37 (1981), p. 12; repr. in Abulafia, Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean.

  31. Anna Komnene, Alexiad, 3:12.

  32. Ibid., 4:1–5:1.

  33. R.-J. Lilie, Handel und Politik zwischen dem byzantinischen Reich und den italienischen Kommunen Venedig, Pisa und Genua in der Epoche der Komnenen und der Angeloi (1081–1204), (Amsterdam, 1984), pp. 9–16; Abulafia, Two Italies, pp. 54–5; Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, pp. 268–9.

  34. J. Holo, Byzantine Jewry in the Mediterranean Economy (Cambridge, 2009), pp. 183–6.

  35. Abulafia, ‘Italiani fuori d’Italia’, p. 270.

  36. D. Howard, Venice and the East: the Impact of the Islamic World on Venetian Architecture 1100–1500 (New Haven, CT, 2000), pp. 65–109.

  4. ‘The Profit That God Shall Give’, 1100–1200

  1. For earlier plans, see H. E. J. Cowdrey, ‘Pope Gregory VII’s crusading plans’, in Outremer: Studies in the History of the Crusading Kingdom of Jerusalem Presented to Joshua Prawer, ed. R.
C. Smail, H. E. Mayer and B. Z. Kedar (Jerusalem, 1982), pp. 27–40, repr. in H. E. J. Cowdrey, Popes, Monks and Crusaders (London, 1984), essay x.

  2. J. Prawer, Histoire du royaume latin de Jérusalem, 2 vols. (Paris, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 177–238.

  3. S. A. Epstein, Genoa and the Genoese, 958–1528 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1996), pp. 28–9.

  4. Ibid., p. 29.

  5. L. Woolley, A Forgotten Kingdom (Harmondsworth, 1953), pp. 190–91, plate 23.

  6. M.-L. Favreau-Lilie, Die Italiener im Heiligen Land vom ersten Kreuzzug bis zum Tode Heinrichs von Champagne (1098–1197), (Amsterdam, 1989), pp. 43–8.

  7. Epstein, Genoa, p. 30.

  8. Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, pp. 254, 257.

  9. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 94–5.

  10. R. Barber, The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief (London, 2004), p. 168.

  11. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 88–9, 106.

  12. Epstein, Genoa, p. 32.

  13. D. Abulafia, ‘Trade and crusade 1050–1250’, in Cultural Convergences in the Crusader Period, ed. M. Goodich, S. Menache and S. Schein (New York, 1995), pp. 10–11; repr. in D. Abulafia, Mediterranean Encounters: Economic, Religious, Political, 1100–1550 (Aldershot, 2000); J. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War: Studies in the Maritime History of the Mediterranean 649–1571 (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 122, 124.

  14. Favreau-Lilie, Italiener im Heiligen Land, pp. 51–61; Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, p. 258.

  15. Abulafia, ‘Trade and crusade’, pp. 10–11.

  16. Prawer, Histoire, vol. 1, pp. 258–9.

  17. R. C. Smail, The Crusaders in Syria and the Holy Land (Ancient Peoples and Places, London, 1973), p. 17; R. C. Smail, Crusading Warfare (1097–1193), (Cambridge, 1956), pp. 94–6.

  18. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, p. 115.

  19. J. Prawer, Crusader Institutions (Oxford, 1980), pp. 221–6; J. Richard, Le royaume latin de Jérusalem (Paris, 1953), p. 218.

  20. Pryor, Geography, Technology, and War, pp. 115–16.

  21. R.-J. Lilie, Handel und Politik zwischen dem byzantinischen Reich und den italienischen Kommunen Venedig, Pisa und Genua in der Epoche der Komnenen und der Angeloi (1081–1204), (Amsterdam, 1984), pp. 17–22.