At Day's Close

by A. Roger Ekirch

  39.Cohn, Europe’s Inner Demons, 71–74, 97, 100–101; Lynn A. Martin, Alcohol, Sex, and Gender in Late Medieval and Early Modern Europe (New York, 2001), 79; Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 454–456.

  40.G.R. Quaife, Wanton Wenches and Wayward Wives: Peasants and Illicit Sex in Early Seventeenth Century England (London, 1979), 31; S. Taylor, “Daily Life—and Death—in 17th Century Lamplugh,” Transactions of the Cumberland & Westmorland Antiquarian & Archaeological Society, New Ser. 44 (1945), 138–141; Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 455–461, 498–499.

  41.Cohn, Inner Demons, 105; VG, Aug. 19, 1737; Christina Larner, Enemies of God: The Witch-Hunt in Scotland (Baltimore, 1981), 22–25; Robin Briggs, “Witchcraft and Popular Mentality in Lorraine, 1580–1630,” in Brian Vickers, ed., Occult and Scientific Mentalities in the Renaissance (Cambridge, 1984), 346–347; Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 560–569.

  42.Jon Butler, “Magic, Astrology, and the Early American Religious Heritage, 1600–1760,” AHR 84 (1979), 322.

  43.Scott, Witchcraft, 25; Taillepied, Ghosts, 94.

  44.Wilson, English Proverbs, 203.

  45.Mrs. Bray, Traditions, Legends, Superstitions, and Sketches of Devonshire ... (London, 1838), I, 168–169; Kingsley Palmer, The Folklore of Somerset (Totowa, N.J., 1976), 23; Taillepied, Ghosts, 29, 30. See also Nashe, Works, I, 358; Brand 1848, III, 52.

  46.SAS, IX, 748; Cohens, Italy, 150–151; Roy Porter, “The People’s Health in Georgian England,” in Tim Harris, ed., Popular Culture in England, c.1500–1850 (New York, 1995), 139–142; P.E.H. Hair, “Accidental Death and Suicide in Shropshire, 1780–1809,” Transactions of the Shropshire Archaeological Society 59 (1969), 63–75; Robert Campbell, “Philosophy and the Accident,” in Roger Cooter and Bill Luckin, eds., Accidents in History: Injuries, Fatalities, and Social Relations (Amsterdam, 1997), 19–32.

  47.Apr. 16, 1769, Diary of Sir John Parnell, 1769–1783, 57, British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of Economics; Christopher Hibbert, The English: A Social History (London, 1988), 348–349.

  48.Watts, Works, II, 189; Marsilia Ficino, Three Books on Life, ed. and trans. Carol V. Kaske and John R. Clark (Binghampton, N.Y., 1989), 127; Stanley Coren, Sleep Thieves: An Eye-Opening Exploration into the Science and Mysteries of Sleep (New York, 1996), 97, 185; Lydia Dotto, Losing Sleep: How Your Sleeping Habits Affect Your Life (New York, 1990), 53.

  49.VG, Jan. 5, 1739; Dec. 15, 1744, C. E. Whiting, ed., Two Yorkshire Diaries: The Diary of Arthur Jessop and Ralph Ward’s Journal (Gateshead on Tyne, Eng., 1952), 95; 1721, Dec. 26, 1713, Oct. 26, 1698, East Anglian Diaries, 251, 236, 208; Heywood, Diaries, II, 302.

  50.The True-Born English-man ... (London, 1708), 16; New England Weekly Journal (Boston), July 6, 1736; Penry Williams, The Later Tudors: England, 1547–1603 (Oxford, 1995), 216; Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic, 17–19; Ruff, Violence, 126.

  51.John D. Palmer, The Living Clock: The Orchestrator of Biological Rhythms (New York, 2002), 32–34.

  52.Edward Burghall, Providence Improved (London, 1889), 155, 157, 159; WJ, Aug. 14, 1725; Helen Simpson, ed. and trans., The Waiting City: Paris 1782–88 ... (Philadelphia, 1933), 227; Clifford Morsley, News from the English Countryside: 1750–1850 (London, 1979), 143.

  53.Defoe, Tour, I, 308; PG, Nov. 1, 1733; Dobson, Death and Disease, 245.

  54.J. W. Goethe, Italian Journey, 1786–1788 (New York, 1968), 347; P.E.H. Hair, “Deaths from Violence in Britain: A Tentative Secular Survey,” Population Studies 25 (1971), 5–24.

  55.Peter Borsay, The English Urban Renaissance: Culture and Society in the Provincial Town 1660–1770 (Oxford, 1989), 3–11; Christopher R. Friedrichs, The Early Modern City, 1450–1750 (London, 1995), 20–21.

  56.Raffaella Sarti, Europe at Home: Family and Material Culture, 1500–1800, trans. Allan Cameron (New Haven, 2002), 109–111.

  57.Aug. 16, 1693, Michael Hunter and Annabel Gregory, eds., An Astrological Diary of the Seventeenth Century: Samuel Jeake of Rye, 1652–1699 (Oxford, 1988), 224; Elborg Forster, ed. and trans., A Woman’s Life in the Court of the Sun King: Letters of Liselotte von der Pfalz, 1652–1722 (Baltimore, 1984), 246; Some Bedfordshire Diaries (Streatley, Eng., 1960), 8.

  58.June 30, 1766, Diary of Mr. Tracy and Mr. Dentand, 1766, Bodl., 14; John Spranger, A Proposal or Plan for an Act of Parliament for the Better Paving, Lighting, and Cleaning the Streets ... (London, 1754); Paul Zumthor, Daily Life in Rembrandt’s Holland (New York, 1963), 23–24; Walter King, “How High Is Too High? Disposing of Dung in Seventeenth-Century Prescot,” Sixteenth Century Journal 23 (1992), 446–447; James Clifford, “Some Aspects of London Life in the Mid-18th Century,” in Paul Fritz and David Williams, eds., City & Society in the 18th Century (Toronto, 1973), 19–38; Sarti, Europe at Home, trans. Cameron, 110–114.

  59.Martin Lister, A Journey to Paris in the Year 1698 (London, 1699), 24; Marcelin Defourneaux, Daily Life in Spain: The Golden Age, trans. Newton Branch (New York, 1971), 63; G. M. Trevelyan, English Social History, a Survey of Six Centuries: Chaucer to Queen Victoria (New York, 1965), 438; G. E. Rodmell, ed., “An Englishman’s Impressions of France in 1775,” Durham University Journal (1967), 85; Joseph Palmer, A Four Months Tour through France (London, 1776), II, 58–60; Bargellini, “Vita Notturna,” 80; A. H. de Oliveira, Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages (Madison, Wisc., 1971), 101–102, 141.

  60.Mar. 17, 1709, Sewall, Diary, II, 616; Thomas Pennant, The Journey from Chester to London (London, 1782), 166; June 30, 1666, Pepys, Diary, VII, 188; WJ, Jan. 2, 1725; James K. Hosmer, ed., Winthrop’s Journal: “History of New England,” 1630–1649 (New York, 1908), II, 355.

  61.Burton E. Stevenson, The Home Book of Proverbs, Maxims and Familiar Phrases (New York, 1948), 1686; Cotton Mather, Frontiers Well-Defended: An Essay, to Direct the Frontiers of a Countrey Exposed unto the Incursions of a Barbarous Enemy (Boston, 1707), 14; Oct. 19, 1691, Sewall, Diary, I, 283; Vito Fumagalli, Landscapes of Fear: Perceptions of Nature and the City in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1994), 136–148.

  62.A General Collection of Discourses of the Virtuosi of France, upon Question of All Sorts of Philosophy, and other Natural Knowledge . . . , trans. G. Havers (London, 1664), 204.

  CHAPTER TWO

  1.Jean Delumeau, La Peur en Occident, XIVe–XVIIIe Siècles: Une Cité Assiégée (Paris, 1978), 90.

  2.P. M. Mitchell, trans., Selected Essays of Ludvig Holberg (Westport, Ct., 1976), 51; John Worlidge, Systema Agriculturae; The Mystery of Husbandry Discovered ... (1675; rpt. edn., Los Angeles, 1970), 220; Lawrence Wright, Warm and Snug: The History of the Bed (London, 1962), 120.

  3.Sara Tilghman Nalle, Mad for God: Bartolomé Sánchez, the Secret Messiah of Cardenete (Charlottesville, Va., 2001), 129; Samuel Rowlands, The Night-Raven (London, 1620); The Ordinary of Newgate, His Account of the Behaviour, Confession, and Dying Words, of the Malefactors Who were Executed at Tyburn, Nov. 7, 1750, 10.

  4.Marjorie Keniston McIntosh, Controlling Misbehavior in England, 1370–1600 (Cambridge, 1998), 66–67; Jütte, Poverty, 163; F. Alteri, Dizionario Italiano ed Inglese ... (London, 1726); Paul Griffiths, “Meanings of Nightwalking in Early Modern England,” Seventeenth Century 13 (1998), 213, 216–217.

  5.OBP, Jan. 15–18, 1748, 54; Midnight the Signal: In Sixteen Letters to a Lady of Quality (n.p., 1779), I, 9, passim; John Crowne, Henry the Sixth, the First Part ... (London, 1681), 18; Griffiths, “Nightwalking,” 217–238.

  6.OBP, May 17, 1727, 6.

  7.For an introduction to the large literature on early modern crime, see J. A. Sharpe, Crime in Early Modern England, 1550–1750 (London, 1984); Joanna Innes and John Styles, “The Crime Wave: Recent Writings on Crime and Criminal Justice in Eighteenth-Century England,” Journal of British Studies 25 (1986), 380–435; Ruff, Violence.

  8.Kyd, The Spanish Tragedie (London, 1592); Watts, Works, II, 190.

  9.Hadrianus Junius, The Nomenclator ... (London, 1585), 425
; The Works of Monsieur Boileau (London, 1712), I, 199; Heywood, Diaries, II, 286; OBP, Sept. 7, 1737, 163; S. Pole, “Crime, Society and Law Enforcement in Hanoverian Somerset” (Ph.D. diss., Cambridge Univ., 1983), 302–303; Julius Ralph Ruff, “Crime, Justice, and Public Order in France, 1696–1788: the Senechausee of Libourne” (Ph.D. diss., Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1979), 238; Select Trials, II, 234; Beattie, Crime, 167–192.

  10.Sept.8, 1666, Aug. 21, 1665, Pepys, Diary, VII, 282, VI, 200; OBP, Sept. 6–11, 1738, 146; M. Dorothy George, London Life in the 18th Century (New York, 1965), 10–11; Beattie, Crime, 148–154.

  11.Jeremy Black, British Abroad: The Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1992), 177; Joseph Jacobs, ed., Epistolae Ho-Elianeae: The Familiary Letters of James Howell ... (London, 1900), 45; DUR, Dec. 26, 1788; Marcelin Defourneaux, Daily Life in Spain: The Golden Age, trans. Newton Branch (New York, 1971), 68; Moryson, Itinerary, I, 141.

  12.An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies, and Suppressing All Other Disorders of the Night ... (London, 1731) 65; Colm Lennon, Richard Stanyhurst the Dubliner, 1547–1618 (Blackrock, Ire., 1981), 148; Beattie, Crime, 180–181; J. A. Sharpe, Crime in Seventeenth-Century England: A County Study (Cambridge, 1983), 103.

  13.Richard Head, The Canting Academy; or Villanies Discovered ... (London, 1674), 69; Thomas Evans, Feb. 8, 1773, Assi 45/31/1/78; Ann Maury, Memoirs of a Huguenot Family ... from the Original Autobiography of Rev. James Fontaine ... (New York, 1852), 303; Beattie, Crime, 152–161; Alan Macfarlane, The Justice and the Mare’s Ale: Law and Disorder in Seventeenth-Century England (Oxford, 1981), 136–140; James A. Sharpe, “Criminal Organization in Rural England 1550–1750,” in G. Ortalli, ed., Bande Armate, Banditti, Banditismo (Rome, 1986), 125–140.

  14.William Lithgow, The Totall Discourse of the Rare Adventures & Painefull Peregrinations ... (Glasgow, 1906), 310; Ruff, Violence, 31, 64–65, 217–239; Pierre Goubert, The Ancien Régime: French Society 1600–1750, trans. Steve Cox (London, 1973), 104; Uwe Danker, “Bandits and the State: Robbers and the Authorities in the Holy Roman Empire in the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries,” in Richard J. Evans, ed., The German Underworld: Deviants and Outcasts in German History (London, 1988), 75–107.

  15.OBP, Jan. 17–20, 1750, 30, Dec. 7–12, 1743, 82, Jan. 12, 1733, 45; B., Discolliminium: or a Most Obedient Reply to a Late Book ... (London, 1650).

  16.William Keatinge Clay, ed., Private Prayers, Put Forth by Authority during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth (Cambridge, 1851), 444; Sir Edward Coke, The Third Part of the Institutes of the Laws of England ... (1628; rpt. edn., New York, 1979), 63; Sir William Blackstone, Commentaries on the Laws of England, ed. William Draper Lewis (Phildadelphia, 1902), IV, 1615; Beattie, Crime, 163–165.

  17.Head, Canting Academy, 179; Eric Partridge, ed., A Dictionary of the Underworld (Ware, Eng., 1989), 43, 469; John Poulter, The Discoveries of John Poulter (London, 1753), 43; Jan. 30, 1665, Pepys, Diary, VI, 25.

  18.OBP, Jan. 16, 1734, 55; Beattie, Crime, 163; WJ, July 20, 1728.

  19.July 11, 1664, Pepys, Diary, V, 201; Hanging Not Punishment Enough, for Murtherers, High-way Men, and House-Breakers (London, 1701), 6.

  20.OBP, Dec. 10–13, 1707; Select Trials, I, 306; Michel Porret, Le Crime et ses Circonstances: De l’Esprit de l’Arbitraire au Siècle des Lumières selon les Réquisitoires des Procureurs Genève (Geneva, 1995), 258; Beattie, Crime, 164–165.

  21.Mill, A Nights Search: Discovering the Nature and Condition of all Sorts of Night-Walkers ... (London, 1639); Awnsham Churchill, comp., A Collection of Voyages and Travels ... (London, 1746), VI, 726; Beattie, Crime, 161–167; Sharpe, Seventeenth-Century Crime, 107; A New Journey to France (London, 1715), 85; Henry Swinburne, Travels Through Spain, in the Years 1775 and 1776 ... (London, 1779), I, 348–350.

  22.John L. McMullan, The Canting Crew: London’s Criminal Underworld, 1550–1700 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1984), 162; A Warning for House-Keepers . . . (London, 1676), 4; Heywood, Diaries, III, 206; Cynthia B. Herrup, The Common Peace: Participation and the Criminal Law in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge, 1987), 27, 30–31, 170–171; Ruff, Violence, 221–224; George Huppert, After the Black Death: A Social History of Early Modern Europe (Bloomington, Ind., 1986), 107–109.

  23.Florike Egmond, Underworlds: Organized Crime in the Netherlands 1650–1800 (Cambridge, 1993), 33, 188–191; Schindler, Rebellion, 222; Ruff, Violence, 221; Albrecht Keller, ed., A Hangman’s Diary: Being the Journal of Master Franz Schmidt, Public Executioner of Nuremberg, 1573–1617, trans. C. V. Calvert and A. W. Gruner (Montclair, N.J., 1973), 130.

  24.Elisabeth Crouzet-Pavan, “Potere Politico e Spazio Sociale: It Controllo Della Notte a Venezia nei Secoli XIII–XV,” in Mario Sbriccoli, ed., La Notte: Ordine, Sicurezza e Disciplinamento in Età Moderna (Florence, 1991), 48; Daniel Defoe, Street-Robberies Consider’d ... (1728; rpt. edn., Stockton, N.J., 1973), 68; Alan Williams, The Police of Paris, 1718–1789 (Baton Rouge, 1979), 287.

  25.Dekker, Writings, 193; The Confession &c. of Thomas Mount ... (Portsmouth, N.H., [1791?]), 19; Select Trials, II, 236; Charles Dorrington, Feb. 10, 1764, Assi 45/27/2/125; OBP, Jan. 15–19, 1742, 31, Sept. 6, 1732, 188; Select Trials, I, 303.

  26.John Nelson, Aug. 25, 1738, Assi 45/21/3/126.

  27.OBP, May 15–17, 1746, 149.

  28.OBP, June 28–July 2, 1744, 159, Apr. 25–30, 1750, 68, July 11–14, 1750, 87; Macfarlane, Justice and the Mare’s Ale, 132; OBP, Dec. 5–10, 1744, 7, Dec. 5–10, 1744, 142.

  29.OBP, Oct. 17–19, 1744, 257, Aug. 30, 1727, 4.

  30.Lavater, Spirites, 22; Jeannine Blackwell and Susanne Zantop, eds., Bitter Healing: German Women Writers from 1700 to 1830: An Anthology (Lincoln, Neb., 1990), 60; Brand 1848, II, 314; Danker, “Bandits,” 88. See also Taillepied, Ghosts, 31.

  31.Crusius, Nocte, ch. 11.9; Keller, ed., Hangman’s Diary, trans. Calvert and Gruner, 110; Brand 1848, I, 312, III, 278–279; Marjorie Rowling, The Folklore of the Lake District (Totowa, N.J., 1976), 26; Matthiessen, Natten, 94–95. See also Bargellini, “Vita Notturna,” 84; John McManners, Church and Society in Eighteenth-Century France (Oxford, 1999), II, 232.

  32.Karl Wegert, Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control in 18th Century Württemberg (Stuttgart, 1994), 101; Keller, ed., Hangman’s Diary, trans. Calvert and Gruner, 112–113; Brand 1848, I, 312; Times (London), July 3, 1790.

  33.Torriano, Proverbi, 171.

  34.Pinkerton, Travels, II, 565; Elisabeth Crouzet-Pavan, Venice Triumphant: The Horizons of a Myth, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Baltimore, 2002), 161; Ruff, Violence, 120–121.

  35.Alessandro Falassi, Folklore by the Fireside: Text and Context of the Tuscan Veglia (Austin, 1980), 6; J. Mitchell and M.D.R. Leys, A History of London Life (London, 1958), 73; Claude Fouret, “Douai au XVIe Siècle: Une Sociabilté de l’Agression,” Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 34 (1987), 9–10; Robert Muchembled, “La Violence et la Nuit sous l’Ancien Régime,” Ethnologie Francaise 21 (1991), 237; Rudy Chaulet, “La Violence en Castille au XVIIe Siècle,” Crime, Histoire & Sociâetâes 1 (1997), 14–16. See also Barbara A. Hanawalt, “Violent Death in Fourteenth- and Early Fifteenth-Century England,” Comparative Studies in Society and History 18 (1976), 305, 319.

  36.J. R. Hale, ed., The Travel Journal of Antonio de Beatis ... , trans. J. R. Hale and J.M.A. Lindon (London, 1979), 82; James Casey, The Kingdom of Valencia in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, 1979), 212; Moryson, Unpublished Itinerary, 463, 163; Cleone Knox, The Diary of a Young Lady of Fashion in the Year 1764–1765 (New York, 1926), 220; Ménétra, Journal, 86; S. Johnson, London: A Poem ... (London, 1739), 17; James Hervey, Meditations and Contemplations (New York, 1848), II, 33; J.S. Cockburn, “Patterns of Violence in English Society: Homicide in Kent, 1560–1985,” PP 103 (1991), 86; Matthiessen, Natten, 141.

  37.Dec. 21, 1494, Luca Landucci, ed., A Florentine Diary from 1450 to 1516 ... , trans. Alice De Rosen Jervis (1927; rpt. edn., Freeport, N.Y., 197
1), 77; Remarks 1717, 238, 241; Ruff, Violence, 75–76; Jonathan Walker, “Bravi and Venetian Nobles, C. 1550–1650,” Studi Veneziani 36 (1998), 85–113.

  38.Aug. 18, 1692, Wood, Life, V, 398; G. C. Faber, The Poetical Works of John Gay ... (London, 1926), 81; Robert Shoemaker, “Male Honour and the Decline of Public Violence in Eighteenth-Century London,” SH 26 (2001), 190–208.

  39.The Rules of Civility (London, 1685), 114–115, passim; Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process: The Development of Manners ... , trans. Edmond Jephcott, 2 vols. (New York, 1978–1982); Ruff, Violence, 7–8; Penelope Corfield, “Walking the City Streets: The Urban Odyssey in Eighteenth-Century England,” JUH 16 (1990), 132–174; Jan Bremmer and Herman Roodenburg, eds., A Cultural History of Gesture (Ithaca, N.Y., 1992), passim.

  40.Sir Thomas Overbury, His Wife (London, 1622); Feb. 8, 1660, Pepys, Diary, I, 46; Schindler, “Youthful Culture,” 275; Thomas Bell, May 2, 1666, York Depositions, 142; WJ, Mar. 23, 1723.

  41.Richard A. Page and Martin K. Moss, “Environmental Influences on Aggression: The Effects of Darkness and Proximity of Victim,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 6 (1976), 126–133.

  42.Francis Lenton, Characterismi: or, Lentons Leasures ... (London, 1631); Robert E. Thayer, The Origin of Everyday Moods: Managing Energy, Tension, and Stress (New York, 1996), passim.

  43.Carolyn Pouncy, ed., The “Domostroi”: Rules for Russian Households in the Time of Ivan the Terrible (Ithaca, N.Y., 1994), 81; Arne Jansson, From Swords to Sorrow: Homicide and Suicide in Early Modern Stockholm (Stockholm, 1998), 125.

  44.F. G. Emmison, ed., Elizabethan Life: Disorder; Mainly from Essex Sessions and Assize Records (Chelmsford, Eng., 1970), 206; Matthiessen, Natten, 133; Ruff, Violence, 126; Muchembled, Violence, 31–32.

  45.Francis Henderson, June 11, 1777, Assi 45/33/1/14a; Plain Advice to Hard-Drinkers ... (London, 1796), 10; Pieter Spierenburg, “Knife Fighting and Popular Codes of Honor in Early Modern Amsterdam,” in Pieter Spierenburg, ed., Men and Violence: Gender, Honor, and Rituals in Modern Europe and America (Columbus, Ohio, 1998), 109; Julius R. Ruff, Crime, Justice and Public Order in Old Regime France: The Sénéchaussées of Libourne and Bazas, 1696–1789 (London, 1984), 80–81.