At Day's Close

by A. Roger Ekirch

  8.Richards, The Tragedy of Messallina (London, 1640).

  9.Walter R. Davis, ed., The Works of Thomas Campion ... (New York, 1967), 147; Terry Castle, “The Culture of Travesty: Sexuality and Masquerade in Eighteenth-Century England,” in G. S. Rousseau and Roy Porter, eds., Sexual Underworlds of the Englightenment (Manchester, 1987), 158; Terry Castle, Masquerade and Civilization: The Carnivalesque in Eighteenth-Century English Culture and Fiction (Stanford, Calif., 1986).

  10.The Rich Cabinet ... (London, 1616), fo. 20; Sara Mendelson, “The Civility of Women in Seventeenth-Century England,” in Peter Burke et al., eds., Civil Histories: Essays Presented to Sir Keith Thomas (Oxford, 2000), 114; Stephen J. Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (Chicago, 1980).

  11.Castle, Masquerade, 25, 1–109, passim; Castle, “Culture of Travesty,” 166–167; HMM and GA, Jan. 28, 1755.

  12.Castle, Masquerade, 73, 1–109, passim; “W.Z.,” GM 41 (1771), 404; WJ, May 16, 1724; Occasional Poems, Very Seasonable and Proper for the Present Times ... (London, 1726), 5; Amanda Vickery, The Gentleman’s Daughter: Women’s Lives in Georgian England (New Haven, 1998), 243.

  13.Castle, Masquerade, 73, 1–109, passim; Nancy Lyman Roelker, ed. and trans., The Paris of Henry of Navarre, as Seen by Pierre de l’Estoile: Selections from His Mémoires-Journaux (Cambridge, Mass., 1958), 58; Bulstrode Whitelock, The Third Charge ... (London, 1723), 21.

  14.Henry Alexander, trans., Four Plays by Holberg (Princeton, N.J., 1946), 171.

  15.Goffe, The Raging Turk (London, 1631).

  16.Alexander Hamilton, Gentleman’s Progress: The Itinerarium of Dr. Alexander Hamilton, 1744, ed. Carl Bridenbaugh (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1948), 177; PG, Dec. 23, 1762.

  17.Douglas Grant, ed., The Poetical Works of Charles Churchill (Oxford, 1956), 52, 55; John S. Farmer, ed., Merry Songs and Ballads prior to the Year a.d. 1800 (New York, 1964), III, 67; Anna Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility: Changing Codes of Conduct in Early Modern England (Oxford, 1998), 245, 246–275, passim.

  18.May 31, 1706, Cowper, Diary; The Works of Mr. Thomas Brown in Prose and Verse ... (London, 1708), III, 3; S. Johnson, London: A Poem ... (London, 1739), 17; US and WJ, Apr. 11, 1730; Bryson, Courtesy to Civility, 248–249; Vickery, Daughter, 213–214; G.J. Barker-Benfield, The Culture of Sensibility: Sex and Society in Eighteenth-Century Britain (Chicago, 1992), 50–51.

  19.Elborg Forster, ed. and trans., A Woman’s Life in the Court of the Sun King: Letters of Liselotte von der Pfalz, 1652–1722 (Baltimore, 1984), 219; M. Dreux du Radier, Essai Historique, Critique, Philologuique, Politique, Moral, Litteraire et Galant, sur les Lanternes ... (Paris, 1755), 92–96; Jeffry Kaplow, The Names of Kings: The Parisian Laboring Poor in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1972), 106.

  20.Oct. 10, 1764, Frederick A. Pottle, ed., Boswell on the Grand Tour: Germany and Switzerland, 1764 (New York, 1953), 135; June 4, 1763, Frederick A. Pottle, ed., Boswell’s London Journal, 1762–1763 (New York, 1950), 272–273, 264 n.1, passim; Craig Harline and Eddy Put, A Bishop’s Tale: Matthias Hovius Among His Flock in Seventeenth-Century Flanders (New Haven, 2000), 253–254; John Owen, Travels into Different Parts of Europe, in the Years 1791 and 1792 ... (London, 1796), II, 85.

  21.Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, 1550–1720 (Oxford, 1998), 109; Jerome Nadelhaft, “The Englishwoman’s Sexual Civil War: Feminist Attitudes towards Men, Women, and Marriage, 1650–1740,” Journal of the History of Ideas 43 (1982), 573, 576; Linda Pollock, “‘Teach Her to Live under Obedience’: The Making of Women in the Upper Ranks of Early Modern England,” Continuity and Change 4 (1989), 231–258.

  22.Westward for Smelts. Or, the Water-man’s Fare of Mad-Merry Western Wenches ... (London, 1620), 24; Giovannia Boccaccio, The Corbaccio, ed. and trans. Anthony K. Cassell (Urbana, Ill., 1975), 28; George Chapman, An Humerous Dayes Myrth (London, 1599), 9; Feb. 14, 1668, Pepys, Diary, IX, 71; April 1683, Wood, Life, 42; Jeffrey Merrick and Bryant T. Ragan, Jr., eds., Homosexuality in Early Modern France: A Documentary Collection (New York, 2001), 38; Piero Camporesi, Exotic Brew: The Art of Living in the Age of Enlightenment (Malden, Mass., 1994), 12.

  23.Thomas D’Urfey, Squire Oldsapp: or, the Night-Adventures (London, 1679), 29; Dec. 27, 1775, Charles Ryskamp and Frederick A. Pottle, eds., Boswell: The Ominous Years, 1774–1776 (New York, 1963), 206, passim; Cecil Aspinall-Oglander, Admiral’s Widow: Being the Life and Letters of the Hon. Mrs. Edward Boscawen from 1761 to 1805 (London, 1942), 88–89; July 13, 1716, William Matthews, ed., The Diary of Dudley Ryder, 1715–1716 (London, 1939), 274, passim; June 5, 1763, Pottle, ed., Boswell’s London Journal, 273.

  24.“A City Night-piece in Winter,” Walker’s Hibernian Magazine 9 (1779), 272; OBP, Apr. 28, 1731, 16–17; “The Watchman’s Description of Covent Garden at Two o’Clock in the Morning,” Weekly Amusement (London), May 5, 1764.

  25.“X.Y.,” LM, Jan. 26, 1773; Graham Greene, Lord Rochester’s Monkey, Being the Life of John Wilmot, Second Earl of Rochester (London, 1974), 106; Oct. 23, 26, 1668, Feb. 3, 1664, Pepys, Diary, IX, 335–336, 338–339, V, 37; “The Connoisseur,” HMM and GA, Mar. 18, 1755; Bryson, Courtesy to Civility, 250, 254–255; James Grantham Turner, Libertines and Radicals in Early Modern London: Sexuality, Politics, and Literary Culture, 1630–1685 (Cambridge, 2002), 226–227.

  26.Harold Love, ed., The Works of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester (Oxford, 1999), 45; Guy Chapman, ed., The Travel-Diaries of William Beckford of Fonthill (Cambridge, 1928), II, 55; Robert Shoemaker, “Male Honour and the Decline of Public Violence in Eighteenth-Century London,” SH 26 (2001), 200; Bryson, Courtesy to Civility, 249; Barker-Benfield, Sensibility, 47; May 3, 1709, Cowper, Diary; Julius R. Ruff, Crime, Justice and Public Order in Old Regime France: The Sénéchaussées of Libourne and Bazas, 1696–1789 (London, 1984), 91.

  27.Thornton Shirley Graves, “Some Pre-Mohock Clansmen,” Studies in Philology 20 (1923), 395–421; Grose, Dictionary; Moryson, Unpublished Itinerary, 463; Helen Langdon, Caravaggio: A Life (New York, 1999), 133, 312–314.

  28.Graves, “Pre-Mohock Clansmen,” 399, 395–421, passim; Bryson, Courtesy to Civility, 249; May 30, 1668, Pepys, Diary, IX, 218–219; The Town-Rakes: or, the Frolicks of the Mohocks or Hawkubites (London, 1712); Swift, Journal, II, 524–525, 508–515, passim; Mar. 20, 1712, Cowper, Diary; Daniel Statt, “The Case of the Mohocks: Rake Violence in Augustan London,” SH 20 (1995), 179–199.

  29.Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, I, 2, 137–139, 159; Verdon, Night, 46; US and WJ, Apr. 11, 1730; A Pleasant and Delightful Story of King Henry the VIII, and a Cobler (n.p., [1670?]); Theophilius Cibber, The Lives of the Poets of Great Britain and Ireland (1753; rpt. edn., Hildesheim, Ger., 1968), II, 289; Roelker, ed. and trans., Paris of Henry of Navarre, 52, 47, 77; Edouard Fournier, Les Lanternes: Histoire de l’Ancien Éclairage de Paris (Paris, 1854), 15; Matthiessen, Natten, 134, 132; Benjamin Silliman, A Journal of Travels in England, Holland, and Scotland ... (New Haven, 1820), I, 179; Frederic J. Baumgartner, France in the Sixteenth Century (New York, 1995), 222.

  CHAPTER NINE

  1.Shakespeare, King John, I, 1, 172.

  2.Thomas Dekker, The Seven Deadly Sinnes of London, ed. H.F.B. Brett-Smith (1606; rpt. edn., New York, 1922), 31; Eric Robinson et al., eds., The Early Poems of John Clare, 1804–1822 (Oxford, 1989), II, 197; Douglas Grant, ed., The Poetical Works of Charles Churchill (Oxford, 1956), 58; E. P. Thompson, “Eighteenth-Century English Society: Class Struggle without Class?,” SH 3 (1978), 158; Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Eugene Rochberg-Halton, The Meaning of Things: Domestic Symbols and the Self (Cambridge, 1981), 16–52, passim.

  3.May 23, 1693, May 25, 1686, Wood, Life, V, 423, 187; E.S. De Beer, ed., Diary of Mary, Countess Cowper (London, 1864), I, 19; Legg, Low-Life, 93.

  4.Franco Mormando, The Preacher’s Demons: Bernardino of Sienna and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy (Chicago, 1999), 85; Nov. 27, 28, 1625, [Andrés De La Vega], Memorias de Sevilla, 1600–1678, ed. Franc
isco Morales Padrón (Córdoba, 1981), 50; Thomas V. Cohen, “The Case of the Mysterious Coil of Rope: Street Life and Jewish Persona in Rome in the Middle of the Sixteenth Century,” Sixteenth Century Journal 19 (1988), 209–221; Elliot Horowitz, “The Eve of the Circumcision: A Chapter in the History of Jewish Nightlife,” JSH 23 (1989), 48; Anna Foa, The Jews of Europe after the Black Death, trans. Andrea Grover (Berkeley, Calif., 2000), 143.

  5.M[aster] Elias Schad, “True Account of an Anabaptist Meeting at Night in a Forest and a Debate Held There with Them,” Mennonite Quarterly Review 58 (1984), 292–295; E. Veryard, An Account of Divers Choice Remarks . . . Taken in a Journey ... (London, 1701), 75; Famiano Strada, De Bello Belgio: The History of the Low-Countrey Warres, trans. Sir Robert Stapylton (London, [1650?]), 61–62; Henry Hibbert, Syntagma Theologicum ... (London, 1662), 252; Natalie Zemon Davis, Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, Calif., 1975), 214.

  6.Jan. 20, 1640, Joseph Alfred Bradney, ed., The Diary of Walter Powell of Llantilo Crosseny in the County of Monmouth, Gentleman: 1603–1654 (Bristol, 1907), 25; Henry Fishwick, ed., The Note Book of the Rev. Thomas Jolly a.d. 1671–1693 (Manchester, 1894), 54, passim; David Cressy, Agnes Bowker’s Cat: Travesties and Transgressions in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford, 2001), 116–137; Heywood, Diaries, I, passim.

  7.F. P. Wilson, The Plague in Shakespeare’s London (Oxford, 1957), 61; Giula Calvi, Histories of a Plague Year: The Social and the Imaginary in Baroque Florence, trans. Dario Biocca and Bryant T. Ragan, Jr. (Berkeley, Calif., 1989), 90–91; Daniel Defoe, A Journal of the Plague Year ... (1722; rpt. edn., London, 1928), 233, passim; Walter George Bell, The Great Plague in London in 1665 (1924; rpt. edn., London, 1979), 210.

  8.Angeline Goreau, “‘Last Night’s Rambles’: Restoration Literature and the War Between the Sexes,” in Alan Bold, ed., The Sexual Dimension in Literature (London, 1983), 51; OBP, Apr. 20, 1726, 6; Michael Rocke, Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and Male Culture in Renaissance Florence (New York, 1996), 151–152, 154–155; Jeffrey Merrick and Bryant T. Ragan, Jr., eds., Homosexuality in Early Modern France: A Documentary Collection (New York, 2001), 59.

  9.Katherine M. Rogers, ed., Selected Poems of Anne Finch, Countess of Winchilsea (New York, 1979), 157.

  10.Paroimiographia (French), 28; Richard L. Kagan and Abigail Dyer, eds. and trans., Inquisitorial Inquiries: Brief Lives of Secret Jews and Other Heretics (Baltimore, 2004), 97.

  11.Joyce M. Ellis, The Georgian Town, 1680–1840 (New York, 2001), 74; Jütte, Poverty, 52–59, 146–149; Olwen H. Hufton, The Poor of Eighteenth-Century France, 1750–1789 (Oxford, 1974).

  12.An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies, and Suppressing All Other Disorders of the Night ... (London, 1731), 33; Schindler, “Youthful Culture,” 271; Solomon Stoddard, Three Sermons Lately Preach’d at Boston ... (Boston, 1717), 104; Arthur Friedman, ed., Collected Works of Oliver Goldsmith (Oxford, 1966), 431.

  13.Susan Brigden, “Youth and the English Reformation,” PP 95 (1982), 38, 44; Griffiths, Youth, 36, passim; Gary Cross, A Social History of Leisure Since 1600 (State College, Pa., 1990), 15.

  14.Nicetas: or, Temptations to Sin ... (Boston, 1705), 35; Schindler, “Youthful Culture,” 243, 278; June 5, 1713, Diary of Cotton Mather (New York, [1957?]), I, 216; William Davenant, The Works ... (London, 1673).

  15.David Garrioch, The Making of Revolutionary Paris (Berkeley, Calif., 2002), 36; Tim Meldrum, Domestic Service and Gender, 1660–1750: Life and Work in the London Household (Harlow, Eng., 2000), 34–67, 92–110; Bridget Hill, Servants: English Domestics in the Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 1996), 101, 105–106; Griffiths, Youth, 314–321; Anne Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, 1981); Cissie Fairchilds, Domestic Enemies: Servants & Their Masters in Old Regime France (Baltimore, 1984); Richard S. Dunn, “Servants and Slaves: The Recruitment and Employment of Labor,” in Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds., Colonial British America: Essays in the New History of the Early Modern Era (Baltimore, 1984), 157–194; Philip D. Morgan, Slave Counterpoint: Black Culture in the Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake and Lowcountry (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1998).

  16.Nathaniel B. Shurtleff, ed., Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England (Boston, 1854), V, 62; Aug. 27, 1705, Cowper, Diary; SAS, XIV, 397.

  17.Hillary Beckles, Black Rebellion in Barbados: The Struggle Against Slavery, 1627–1838 (Bridgetown, Barbados, 1987), 70; David A. Copeland, Colonial American Newspapers: Character and Content (Newark, Del., 1997), 134; Sarah McCulloh Lemmon, ed., The Pettigrew Papers (Raleigh, N.C., 1971), I, 398; Morgan, Slave Counterpoint, 524–526, passim.

  18.Weinsberg, Diary, IV, 11; PG, Aug. 2, 1750; Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York, 1974), 257.

  19.Tim Harris, “Perceptions of the Crowd in Later Stuart London,” in J. F. Merritt, ed., Imagining Early Modern London: Perceptions and Portrayals of the City from Stow to Strype, 1598–1720 (Cambridge, 2001), 251; George P. Rawick, ed., The American Slave: A Composite Autobiography (Westport, Ct., 1972), XV, 365; Samuel Phillips, Advice to a Child ... (Boston, 1729), 49, passim.

  20.Feb. 3, 1772, Carter, Diary, II, 648; James Lackington, Memoirs of the First Forty-Five Years ... (London, 1792), 35; Edward Ward, The Rambling Rakes, or, London Libertines (London, 1700), 9; Meldrum, Domestic Service, 168–169.

  21.Piero Camporesi, The Land of Hunger (Cambridge, Mass., 1996), 132; Louis Châtellier, The Religion of the Poor: Rural Missions in Europe and the Formation of Modern Catholicism, c.1500–c.1800, trans. Brian Pearce (Cambridge, 1997), 171; Guy Chapman, ed., The Travel-Diaries of William Beckford of Fonthill (Cambridge, 1928), II, 54; “An Inhabitant of Bloomsbury,” PA, Aug. 8, 1770; Bronislaw Geremek, Poverty: A History (Oxford, 1994), 215; Jeffry Kaplow, The Names of Kings: The Parisian Laboring Poor in the Eighteenth Century (New York, 1972), 108.

  22.John Bruce, ed., Diary of John Manningham ... (1868; rpt. edn., New York, 1968), 83; The Vocal Miscellany: A Collection of Above Four Hundred Celebrated Songs ... (London, 1734), 120.

  23.Willie Lee Rose, ed., A Documentary History of Slavery in North America (New York, 1976), 19; J.F.D. Smyth, A Tour in the United States of America (London, 1784), I, 46; Roger D. Abrahams, Singing the Master: The Emergence of African American Culture in the Plantation South (New York, 1982), 5; Mark M. Smith, “Time, Slavery and Plantation Capitalism in the Ante-Bellum American South,” PP 150 (1996), 160.

  24.Lottin, Chavatte, 141; Pieter Spierenburg, “Knife Fighting and Popular Codes of Honor in Early Modern Amsterdam,” in Pieter Spierenburg, ed., Men and Violence: Gender, Honor, and Rituals in Modern Europe and America (Columbus, Ohio, 1998), 108; Ann Tlusty, “The Devil’s Altar: The Tavern and Society in Early Modern Augsburg (Germany)” (Ph. D. diss., Univ. of Maryland, 1994), 184; OBP, Sept. 11, 1735, 110; The Countryman’s Guide to London or, Villainy Detected ... (London, 1775), 78; Thomas Brennan, Public Drinking and Popular Culture in Eighteenth-Century Paris (Princeton, N.J., 1988), 282–283, passim; Merry E. Wiesner, Working Women in Renaissance Germany (New Brunswick, N.J., 1986), 133–134; Daniel Roche, The People of Paris: An Essay in Popular Culture in the 18th Century, trans. Marie Evans (Leamington Spa, Eng., 1987), 255; Feb. 3, 1772, Carter, Diary, II, 649.

  25.Hardy, The Life and Death of the Mayor of Casterbridge: A Story of a Man of Character (New York, 1984), 307.

  26.Erskine Beveridge, comp., and J. D. Westwood, ed., Fergusson’s Scottish Proverbs ... (Edinburgh, 1924), 39; Legg, Low-Life, 21; Bargellini, “Vita Notturna,” 83; F. Platter, Journal, 89–90; Fernando de Rojas, The Celestina: A Novel in Dialogue, trans. Lesley Byrd Simpson (Berkeley, Calif., 1971), 81; Ernest A. Gray, ed., The Diary of a Surgeon in the Year 1751–1752 (New York, 1937), 74–75; WJ, Mar. 20, 1725.

  27.Laura Gowing, “‘The Freedom of the Streets’: Women and Social Space, 1560–1640,” in Mark S. R. Jenner and Paul Griffiths, eds., Londinopolis: Ess
ays in the Cultural and Social History of Early Modern London (Manchester, 2000), 143; Linda A. Pollock, “Parent-Child Relations,” in FLEMT, 215–217; Alan Williams, The Police of Paris, 1718–1789 (Baton Rouge, 1979), 196; Jane Brewerton, Feb. 29, 1760, Assi 45/26/4/6.

  28.Jan. 23, 1574, I. H. Van Eeghen, ed., Dagboek Van Broeder Wouter Jacobsz (Gaultherus Jacobi Masius Prior Van Stein: Amsterdam, 1572–1578, En Montfoort, 1578–1579) (Gronningen, Neth., 1959), 359.

  29.Thomas Dekker, The Seven Deadly Sinnes of London, ed. H.F.B. Brett-Smith (New York, 1922), 41; Nicolas-Edme Restif de la Bretonne, Les Nuits de Paris or the Nocturnal Spectator (New York, 1964), 68; Select Trials, II, 11; Legg, Low-Life, 100; Wilson, English Proverbs, 542; OED, s.v. “flitting.”

  30.Dekker, Writings, 230; Richard Head, The Canting Academy; or Villanies Discovered ... (London, 1674), 37, 40; Roger B. Manning, Village Revolts: Social Protest and Popular Disturbances in England, 1509–1640 (Oxford, 1988), 173; Gilbert Slater, The English Peasantry and the Enclosure of Common Fields (1907; rpt. edn., New York, 1968), 119–120; Hugh Evans, The Gorse Glen, trans. E. Morgan Humphreys (Liverpool, 1948), 70.

  31.Carol F. Karlsen, The Devil in the Shape of a Woman: Witchcraft in Colonial New England (New York, 1987), 159; Alan Taylor, “The Early Republic’s Supernatural Economy: Treasure Seeking in the American Northeast, 1780–1830,” American Quarterly 38 (1986), 6–34 (I want to thank Alan Taylor for providing me with a copy of his article); William W. Hagen, Ordinary Prussians: Brandenburg, Junkers and Villagers, 1500–1840 (Cambridge, 2002), 479; W. R. Jones, “‘Hill-Diggers’ and ‘Hell-Raisers’: Treasure Hunting and the Supernatural in Old and New England,” in Peter Benes, ed., Wonders of the Invisible World: 1600–1900 (Boston, 1995), 97–106. See also Benjamin Franklin, Writings, ed. J. A. Leo Lemay (New York, 1987), 113–115.