24. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 87–8.
25. Ibid., pp. 93–4; Spahr, Zhukov, pp. 101–2.
26. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, p. 96.
27. Maisky quotation in S. M. Miner, Between Churchill and Stalin: The Soviet Union, Great Britain and the Origins of the Grand Alliance (Chapel Hill, 1988), p. 158; Lend-Lease figures in M. Harrison, Soviet Planning in Peace and War, 1938–1945 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 258–9.
28. V. Berezhkov, History in the Making: Memoirs of World War II Diplomacy (Moscow, 1983), p. 195.
29. Ibid., pp. 196–9; W. A. Harriman and E. Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1945 (London, 1975), pp. 152–64.
30. Spahr, Zhukov, pp. 103–5.
31. Details in G. A. Kumanev, ‘The Soviet Economy and the 1941 Evacuation’, in J. L. Wieczynski, ed., Operation Barbarossa: The German Attack on the Soviet Union, June 22, 1941 (Salt Lake City, 1993), pp. 168–81; F. Kagan, ‘The Evacuation of Soviet Industry in the Wake of “Barbarossa”: A Key to Soviet Victory‘, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 8 (1995), pp. 389–96.
32. Kumanev, ‘Soviet Economy’, pp. 191–3; Erickson, ‘Soviet Women at War’, in Garrard, World War 2, p. 54.
33. Figures in Kumanev, ‘Soviet Economy’, p. 189; Kagan, ‘Evacuation’, p. 406.
34. Harrison, Soviet Economy, pp. 72–9; Kagan, ‘Evacuation’, p. 396–8.
35. K. Simonov, Days and Nights (London, n.d.), p. 134.
36. Werth, Russia at War, pp. 559–60; V. I. Chuikov, The Beginning of the Road: The Story of the Battle of Stalingrad (London, 1963), pp. 14–27.
37. Chuikov, Stalingrad, pp. 78–9.
38. H. C. Cassidy, Moscow Dateline 1941–1943 (London, 1944), pp. 224–5.
39. Details in Chuikov, Stalingrad, pp. 93–02; Werth, Russia at War, pp. 452–3; J. Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad (London, 1975), pp. 391–3.
40. Rats detail in Cassidy, Moscow Dateline, p. 226.
41. Chuikov, Stalingrad, p. 191.
42. Figure in J. Erickson, ‘Red Army Battlefield Performance, 1941–45: The System and the Soldier’, in P. Addison and A. Calder, eds., Time to Kill: The Soldier's Experience of War in the West 1939–1945 (London, 1997), p. 244.
43. Simonov, Days and Nights, p. 6.
44. Werth, Russia at War, p. 456.
45. Von Hardesty, Red Phoenix, pp. 97–104; The Soviet Air Force in World War II (London, 1982 from the Russian original), pp. 114–34; S. Zaloga and J. Gransden, Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles of World War II (London, 1984), pp. 152–4.
46. Details on Uranus from Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, pp. 447–53; Zhukov, Reminiscences, pp. 115–17; Glantz and House, When Titans Clashed, pp. 133–4.
47. K. Zeitzler, ‘Stalingrad’, in W. Richardson and S. Frieden, eds., The Fatal Decisions (London, 1956), p. 138.
48. Glantz and House, When Titans Clashed, p. 134; Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, pp. 468–9.
49. F. Paulus, ‘Stalingrad: A Brief Survey’, in W. Goerlitz, Paulus and Stalingrad (London, 1963), p. 283.
50. W. Murray, Luftwaffe (London, 1985), pp. 141–4.
51. Details in Goerlitz, Paulus and Stalingrad, pp. 4–6, 47–8, 59–60.
52. Wieder, Stalingrad, p. 43.
53. J. Erickson, The Road to Berlin: Stalin's War with Germany (London, 1983), p. 114.
54. Reported in Cassidy, Moscow Dateline, p. 253.
55. On the air blockade see Hardesty, Red Phoenix, pp. 110–17; on Koltso see Glantz and House, When Titans Clashed, pp. 141–2; Erickson, Road to Berlin, pp. 46–50.
56. Werth, Russia at War, pp. 540–1.
57. Wieder, Stalingrad, p. 327.
58. F. Gilbert, ed., Hitler Directs his War: The Secret Records of his Daily Military Conferences (New York, 1950), pp. 18–19.
59. Werth, Russia at War, p. 543; Ehrenburg, Men – Years – Life, p. 92.
60. Erickson, ‘War Losses’, p. 264. The figure for the defensive operations at Stalingrad was 323,856 killed; for the offensive operations, 154,885 (with a total of 651,000 wounded).
61. From an interview with Werth in Russia at War, p. 531.
Chapter 7
Epigraph: K. Simonov, Days and Nights (London, n.d.), p. 59.
1. E. von Manstein, Verlorene Siege (Bonn, 1955), p. 508.
2. See J. Erickson, ‘Red Army Battlefield Performance, 1941–45: The System and the Soldier’, in P. Addison and A. Calder, eds., Time to Kill: The Soldier's Experience of War in the West, 1941–1945 (London, 1997), pp. 237–41, 247–8 on the declining manpower pool available to Soviet forces, and the myth of ‘Russian masses’.
3. B. Bonwetsch, ‘Stalin, the Red Army, and the “Great Patriotic War”’, in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin, eds., Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge, 1997), pp. 203–4; E. O'Ballance, The Red Army (London, 1964), p. 179.
4. S. Bialer, ed., Stalin and his Generals: Soviet Military Memoirs (New York, 1969), pp. 350–1 (memoir of Marshal A. Vasilevsky), pp. 352–4 (memoir of S. M. Shtemenko), pp. 367–8 (memoir of Marshal N. Voronov).
5. S. M. Shtemenko, The Soviet General Staff at War (Moscow, 1970), pp. 125–7.
6. Ibid., pp. 128–9; Bialer, Stalin's Generals, pp. 355–9.
7. J. Sapir, ‘The Economics of War in the Soviet Union during World War II’, in Kershaw and Lewin, Stalinism and Nazism, pp. 219–21; R. M. Ogorkiewicz, Armoured Forces: A History of Armoured Forces and their Vehicles (London, 1970), pp. 123–4; S. J. Zaloga and J. Grandsen, Soviet Tanks and Combat Vehicles in World War II (London, 1984), pp. 146–9, 160–62.
8. R. J. Overy, The Air War 1939–1945 (London, 1980), pp. 52–6; Von Hardesty, Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 (London, 1982), pp. 83–8.
9. Von Hardesty, ‘Roles and Missions: Soviet Tactical Air Power in the Second Period of the Great Patriotic War’, in C. Reddel, ed., Transformations in Russian and Soviet Military History (Washington, 1990), pp. 163–9; K. Uebe, Russian Reactions to German Air Power in World War II (New York, 1964), pp. 29–42.
10. Zaloga and Grandsen, Soviet Tanks, pp. 131–7.
11. Ibid., pp. 155–66.
12. H. P. van Tuyll, Feeding the Bear: American Aid to the Soviet Union 1941–1945 (New York, 1989), pp. 156–7; J. Beaumont, Comrades in Arms: British Aid to Russia 1941–1945 (London, 1980), pp. 210–12. Britain supplied 247,000 telephones and one million miles of telephone line.
13. D. R. Beachley, ‘Soviet Radio-Electronic Combat in World War II, Military Review 61 (1981), pp. 67–8.
14. See the discussion in D. M. Glantz, The Role of Intelligence in Soviet Military Strategy in World War II (Novato, California, 1990).
15. R. J. Overy et al., ‘Co-operation: Trade, Aid and Technology’, in D. Reynolds, W. Kimball and A. O. Chubarian, eds., Allies at War: The Soviet, American and British Experience 1939–1945 (New York, 1994), pp. 207–17.
16. W. A. Harriman and E. Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1945 (London, 1945), pp. 90–91.
17. B. V. Sokolov, ‘Lend Lease in Soviet Military Efforts 1941–1945’, Journal of Slavic Military History 7 (1994), pp. 567–8; Khrushchev in J. L. Schecter and V. V. Luchkov, eds., Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes (New York, 1990), p. 84.
18. Van Tuyll, Feeding the Bear, pp. 156–7; Zaloga and Grandsen, Soviet Tanks, p. 207; V. Vorsin, ‘Motor Vehicle Transport Deliveries Through “Lend-Lease”’, Journey of Slavic Military Studies 10 (1997), pp. 164, 172–3.
19. Sokolov, ‘Lend Lease’, pp. 570–81. The figures supplied by Sokolov represent the first attempt by a Russian scholar to place Lend-Lease in the context of the Soviet production record. His conclusion is significant: ‘Without the Western supplies, the Soviet Union not only could not have won the Great Patriotic War, but even could not have resisted German aggression' (p. 581). ‘Second fronts' from Werth, Russia at War, p. 574.
20. Shtemenko, Soviet General Staff, pp. 152–61.
21. W. Spahr, Zhukov: The Rise and Fall of a Great Captain (
Novato, California, 1993), pp. 119–21 on the arguments about the origins of the plan; Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 150–60.
22. On the revival of the ‘deep battle’ strategy see D. Glantz, ‘Toward Deep Battle: The Soviet Conduct of Operational Maneuver’, in Reddel, Transformations, pp. 194–202.
23. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 168–79; K. Rokossovsky, A Soldier's Duty (Moscow, 1970), pp. 184–90.
24. A. Vasilevsky, ‘Strategic Planning of the Battle of Kursk’, in The Battle of Kursk (Moscow, 1974), p. 73; on the logistical effort, N. Antipenko, ‘Logistics’, in Battle of Kursk, pp. 242, 245–6.
25. Details on the size of the two opposing forces have recently come under critical scrutiny; see N. Zetterling, ‘Loss Rates on the Eastern Front during World War II, Journal of Slavic Military History 9 (1996), pp. 895–906.
26. T. P. Mulligan, ‘Spies, Ciphers, and “Zitadelle”: Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk 1943’, Journal of Contemporary History 22 (1987), pp. 237–8; C. Andrew and O. Gordievsky, KGB: The Inside Story (London, 1990), pp. 248–9.
27. Mulligan, ‘Spies’, pp. 238–41; Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB, pp. 248–9; Glantz, Soviet Intelligence, pp. 99–100.
28. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, p. 180.
29. Glantz, Soviet Intelligence, pp. 100–103; Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, p. 183.
30. Details in Rokossovsky, Soldier's Duty, pp. 195–202.
31. Erickson, Road to Berlin, pp. 137–40; Manstein, Verlorene Siege, pp. 498–500.
32. C. Sydnor, Soldiers of Destruction: The SS Death's Head Division, 1933–1945 (Princeton, 1977), pp. 283–8.
33. P. Rotmistrov, ‘Tanks against Tanks’, in Main Front: Soviet Leaders Look Back on World War II (London, 1987), pp. 106–9.
34. Ibid., pp. 109–10.
35. Ibid., pp. 112–13.
36. Ibid., pp, 114–17; Erickson, Road to Berlin, pp. 144–6.
37. Sydnor, Soldiers of Destruction, pp. 290–91; F. W. von Mellenthin, Panzer-Schlachten (Neckargemünd, 1963), pp 163–5; Zaloga and Grandsen, Soviet Tanks, p. 166.
38. Rotmistrov, ‘Tanks against Tanks’, pp. 128–9; Spahr, Zhukov, pp. 126–7, who records Zhukov's later claim that the tank battle was less dramatic and decisive than Rotmistrov's colourful account might suggest.
39. Vasilevsky, ‘Strategic Planning’, p. 74; Werth, Russia at War, p. 684.
40. I. Ehrenburg, Men – Years – Life: The War 1941–1945 (London, 1964) p. 107.
41. Manstein, Verlorene Siege, pp. 501–5, who argued that German forces were on the point of victory, a view hard to reconcile with the course of the next three months of fighting.
42. D. Volkogonov, Stalin (London, 1991), p. 481.
43. Ibid., p. 481; English version in S. Richardson, ed., The Secret History of World War II: The Wartime Cables of Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill (New York, 1986), pp. 116–17, ‘Secret and Personal Message from Premier J. V. Stalin to President Roosevelt, August 8, 1943’.
44. Werth, Russia at War, pp. 684–5.
45. Erickson, ‘Soviet Losses’, p. 264.
46. On female employment see J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front 1941–1945 (London, 1991), pp. 215–19; J. Erickson, ‘Soviet Women at War’, in J. Garrard and C. Garrard, World War 2 and the Soviet People (London, 1993), pp. 53–6.
47. A. Sella, The Value of Human Life in Soviet Warfare (London, 1992), pp. 163–4.
48. Ibid., pp. 158–9.
49. Quoted in G. Gibian, ‘World War 2 in Russian National Consciousness’, in Garrard, World War 2, p. 155.
50. Ibid., p. 153, citing Vyacheslav Kondratyev's article published in the Soviet Union on 9 May 1990 to mark the forty-fifth anniversary of the end of the war.
51. Erickson, ‘Soviet Losses’, pp. 261–2; see also A. A. Maslov, ‘Soviet General Officer Corps 1941–1945: Losses in Combat’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 8 (1995), pp. 607–8, who records the loss of 235 generals during the war (and one rear admiral).
52. Erickson, ‘Battlefield Performance’, p. 237.
53. For a discussion of losses see E. Bacon, ‘Soviet Military Losses in World War II’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 6 (1993), pp. 613–33; V. E. Korol, ‘The Price of Victory: Myths and Realities’, in Journal of Slavic Military Studies 9 (1996), pp. 419–26.
54. Sella, Value of Life, p. 72.
55. Ibid., pp. 143–4.
56. Ibid., pp. 144–5.
57. Ehrenburg, Men – Years – Life, p. 115.
58. Ibid., p. 81,
59. Ibid., p. 115.
60. M. Giants, ‘Images of the War in Painting’, in Garrard, World War 2, p. 117; see too N. Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994), pp. 79–84 on popular wartime culture and the attitude of ordinary soldiers.
61. W. Keitel, Memoirs of Field Marshal Keitel (London, 1965), p. 188.
62. Glantz and House, When Titans Clashed, pp. 171–3; Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 218–20.
63. Erickson, Road to Berlin, pp. 186–8.
64. Werth, Russia at War, pp. 752–4.
65. This paragraph and following based on V. Berezhkov, History in the Making: Memoirs of World War II Diplomacy (Moscow, 1983), pp. 238–98 and S. Shtemenko, Soviet General Staff, pp. 177–95 The best account of the conference is to be found in K. Sainsbury, The Turning Point (London, 1986).
66. Berezhkov, History in the Making, p. 252.
67. Ibid., p. 256. Another version of the meeting in Harriman and Abel, Special Envoy, pp. 25–6.
68. Berezhkov, History in the Making, p. 287. Also K. Eubank, Summit at Teheran (New York, 1985), pp. 350–1.
69. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, p. 226.
Chapter 8
1. Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941–1945 (Moscow, 1970), pp. 82, 143.
2. Details can be found in L. L. Kerber, Stalin's Aviation Gulag: A Memoir of Andrei Tupolev and the Purge Era (Washington, 1996).
3. W. Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR during World War II (Cambridge, 1990), p. 63.
4. Great Patriotic War, p. 140; J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front 1941–1945 (London, 1991), pp. 163–5.
5. Moskoff, Bread of Affliction, pp. 136, 148.
6. Ibid., p. 108.
7. Ibid., pp. 108–9, 175; Barber and Harrison, Home Front, pp. 79–85.
8. W. L. White, Report on the Russians (New York, 1945), pp. 148–50.
9. Moskoff, Bread of Affliction, pp. 149–50.
10. M. Harrison, Soviet Planning in Peace and War, 1938–1945 (Cambridge, 1985), pp. 174–6; F. Kagan, ‘The Evacuation of Soviet Industry in the Wake of “Barbarossa”: A Key to Soviet Victory’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 8 (1995), pp. 389–403; L. D. Pozdeeva, ‘The Soviet Union: Phoenix’, in D. Reynolds, W. Kimball and A. O. Chubarian, eds., Allies at War: The Soviet, American and British Experience, 1939–1945 (New York, 1994), pp. 148–56.
11. Moskoff, Bread of Affliction, pp. 142–3.
12. Barber and Harrison, Home Front, pp. 169–70.
13. E. Bacon, The Gulag at War: Stalin's Forced Labour System in the Light of the Archives (London, 1994), pp. 24–8, 85.
14. A. Nove, ‘Victims of Stalinism: How Many?’, in J. A. Getty and R. T. Manning, eds., Stalinist Terror: New Perspectives (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 269–71; Bacon, Gulag at War, pp. 23–38, 122.
15. Bacon, Gulag, pp. 167–8.
16. Ibid., p. 149.
17. Ibid., p. 153.
18. Barber and Harrison, Home Front, pp. 116–19; R. J. Rummell, Lethal Politics: Soviet Genocide and Mass Murder since 1917 (New Brunswick, 1990), p. 155.
19. A. Knight, Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant (Princeton, 1993), pp. 117–19; D. Dallin and B. I. Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour in Russia (London, 1947), pp. 274–5; Rummell, Lethal Politics, p. 156.
20. A. Solzhenitsyn, A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich (London, 1963), p. 140.
21. D. Panin, The Notebooks of Solo
gdin (New York, 1976), pp. 93–5.
22. Ibid., pp. 138–9, 151–4, 210–12.
23. Bacon, Gulag at War, p. 144.
24. V. Tolz, ‘New Information about the Deportation of Ethnic Groups in the USSR during World War 2’, in J. Garrard and C. Garrard, World War 2 and the Soviet People (London, 1993), pp. 161–5; Rummell, Lethal Politics, p. 159.
25. Tolz, ‘New Information’, p. 167. The total was 948,829, including 446,480 Volga Germans. A further 120,192 were deported after the war.
26. Dallin and Nicolaevsky, Forced Labour, p. 46.
27. Rummell, Lethal Politics, pp. 158–9; M. Heller and A. Nekrich, Utopia in Power: A History of the Soviet Union since 1917 (London, 1986), pp. 533–4.
28. Rummell, Lethal Politics, pp. 159–60; figures on deaths among deportee populations are difficult to reconcile. The figures supplied from official Soviet sources in 1990 suggest a much lower sum, approximately 2 to 8 per cent of the exiled populations dying in transit.
29. M. Parrish, The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security 1939–1953 (London, 1996), p. 104, and for other deportations pp. 100–103; Rummell, Lethal Politics, p. 159.
30. A. Knight, Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant (Princeton, 1993), p. 147.
31. Details in A. Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945 (London, 1964), pp. 776–83; J. Erickson, The Road to Berlin (London, 1985), pp. 234–8.
32. Details on bombing from R. J. Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York, 1996), pp. 128–32.
33. On the planning background G. K. Zhukov, Reminiscences and Reflections (Moscow, 1985), iii, pp. 259–63, 266–7.
34. Erickson, Road to Berlin, p. 253 on secrecy; Main Front: Soviet Leaders Look Back on World War II (London, 1987), pp. 177–8; D. M. Glantz, ‘The Red Mask: The Nature and Legacy of Soviet Military Deception in the Second World War’, in M. Handel, ed., Strategic and Operational Deception in the Second World War (London, 1987), pp. 213–17.
35. D. Kahn, Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II (New York, 1978), pp. 440–1.
36. D. M. Glantz and J. House, When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler (London, 1995), pp. 199–201.
37. Glantz, ‘Military Deception’, pp. 218–19; Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, p. 269.
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