41. Volkogonov, Stalin, pp. 412–13 dates the meeting with Stamenov in July 1941, which seems less plausible than October. See the discussion in J. Barros and R. Gregor, Double Deception: Stalin, Hitler and the Invasion of Russia (Dekalb, Illinois, 1995), pp. 219–21; P. Sudaplatov, Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness (New York, 1994), pp. 146–7, 376–85, 397–401, who maintains that the ‘peace feeler’ was part of a wider programme of disinformation disseminated on Beria's instructions.
42. I. Ehrenburg, Men – Years – Life: Vol. 5, The War 1941–45 (London, 1964), pp. 17–18.
43. Werth, Russia at War, p. 235.
44. Volkogonov, Stalin, pp. 434–5.
Chapter 4
Epigraph: V. Inber, Leningrad Diary (London, 1971), p. 38.
1. Details on Zhukov's early life from O. P. Chaney, Zhukov (2nd edition, Norman, Oklahoma, 1996), Chapters 1–4.
2. W. J. Spahr, Zhukov: The Rise and Fall of a Great Captain (Novato, California, 1993), pp. 270–1. On the persistent post-war hostility to Zhukov shown by former colleagues see Chaney, Zhukov, pp. 451–65.
3. C. Andrew and O. Gordievsky, KGB: The Inside Story (London, 1990), pp. 220–21; A. Vaksberg, The Prosecutor and the Prey: Vyshinsky and the 1930s Moscow Show Trials (London, 1990), pp. 221–4.
4. Chaney, Zhukov, pp. 121–3, 125–6.
5. G. Zhukov, Reminiscences and Reflections (2 vols., Moscow, 1985), i, pp. 416–17.
6. Ibid., p. 418; Chaney, Zhukov, pp. 145–7.
7. J. Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad (London, 1974), p. 194.
8. Ibid., p. 192.
9. H. Salisbury, The 900 Days: The Siege of Leningrad (London, 1969), p. 206.
10. A. Werth, Russia at War, 1941–1945 (London, 1964), p. 308.
11. Zhukov, Reminiscences, i, p. 453.
12. Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, pp. 194–5.
13. A. Werth, Leningrad (London, 1944).
14. D. V. Pavlov, Leningrad 1941: The Blockade (Chicago, 1965), pp. 56–7; Inber, Leningrad Diary, pp. 16–25 on the impact of bombing.
15. Pavlov, Leningrad, pp. 75, 79, 84, 88.
16. L. Goure, The Siege of Leningrad (Stanford, 1962), pp. 219–20.
17. Ibid., p. 219.
18. Salisbury, 900 Days, pp. 474–6. Documents have recently been released in St Petersburg which confirm the practice of cannibalism, but its scale cannot be calculated, even from official reports.
19. Zhukov, Reminiscences, i, pp. 438–9.
20. Goure, Leningrad, p. 233; on the story of the Kirov works, Werth, Leningrad, pp. 111–15.
21. L. Nicholas, The Rape of Europe: The Fate of Europe's Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (London, 1994), pp. 187–90, 194–6; N. Kislitsyn and V. Zubakov, Leningrad Does Not Surrender (Moscow, 1989), p. 138. The Leningrad Symphony was not performed in the city until August. The first concert of Russian music since the siege began was held in March 1942.
22. Pavlov, Leningrad, pp. 96–104.
23. Kislitsyn and Zubakov, Leningrad, p.111; Pavlov, Leningrad, pp. 136–8; Werth, Russia at War, pp. 329–30.
24. Goure, Leningrad, pp. 152–3, 204–5.
25. Pavlov, Leningrad, pp. 78–9, 145–6; Inber, Leningrad Diary, p. 37.
26. Kislitsyn and Zubakov, Leningrad, pp. 116–18.
27. Goure, Leningrad, pp. 259–61.
28. Werth, Leningrad, Chapters 1–3.
29. Goure, Leningrad, p. 262.
30. Salisbury, 900 Days, pp. 515–17.
31. Werth, Russia at War, p. 356; on Soviet prisoners of war see C. Streit, Keine Kamaraden. Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangenen 1941–1945 (Stuttgart, 1981).
32. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 12–19.
33. Werth, Russia at War, p. 254.
34. Radzinsky, Stalin, pp. 467–8.
35. J. Stalin, The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union (New York, 1945), pp. 33–4: speech of 6 November 1941; see also Werth, Russia at War, pp. 244–9.
36. S. Bialer, Stalin and his Generals (New York, 1969), pp. 306–9: memoir of General P. A. Artemyev, and General K. R. Sinilov; on the filmed speech, Radzinsky, Stalin, p. 468.
37. R. G. Reuth, Goebbels (London, 1993), p. 297.
38. This and subsequent account of the battle from Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, pp. 250–66; Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 33–40.
39. Panfilov story in Werth, Russia at War, pp. 154–5.
40. Spahr, Zhukhov, pp. 74–5; Zhukov's reply from interview in Programme 4, ‘Russia's War’.
41. German figures in Kriegstagebuch des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (5 vols., Frankfurt am Main, 1961–3), i, pp. 1120–21. Soviet figures calculated from J. Erickson, ‘Soviet War Losses’, in J. Erickson and D. Dilks, eds., Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies (Edinburgh, 1994), pp. 264–5.
42. Kriegstagebuch, i, p. 1120.
43. Bialer, Stalin and his Generals, pp. 295–6: memoir of General P. A. Belov.
44. L. Rotundo, ‘The Creation of Soviet Reserves and the 1941 Campaign’, Military Affairs, 65 (1985), pp. 21–7; D. Glantz, The Military Strategy of the Soviet Union: A History (London, 1992), Appendix 1, Soviet Mobilization in the Second World War, pp. 308–10.
45. J. Lucas, War on the Eastern Front: The German Soldier in Russia 1941–1945 (London, 1979), pp. 78–94; Cooper, German Army, pp. 233–4. Temperature in Bialer, Stalin's Generals, p. 324.
46. Cooper, German Army, p. 344.
47. G. Gorodetsky, Stafford Cripps's Mission to Moscow 1940–42 (Cambridge, 1984), pp. 280–88.
48. Zhukov, Reminiscences, ii, pp. 52–3.
49. Erickson, ‘Soviet Losses’, p. 254.
50. See in particular K. Reinhardt, Moscow – The Turning Point: The Failure of Hitler's Strategy in the Winter of 1941–42 (Oxford 1992) and R. Stolfl, Hitler's Panzers East: World War II Reinterpreted (Norman, Oklahoma, 1991).
51. Erickson, Road to Stalingrad, p. 287.
52. Spahr, Zhukov, p. 67.
53. N. Tumarkin, The Living and the Dead: The Rise and Fall of the Cult of World War II in Russia (New York, 1994), pp. 76–8; Werth, Russia at War, p. 273. On the Zoya cult see K. Hodgson, ‘Soviet Women's Poetry of World War 2’ in J. Garrard and C. Garrard, eds., World War 2 and the Soviet People (London, 1993), pp. 80–81.
54. Ehrenberg, The War, pp. 27–8, 35.
55. Nicholas, Rape of Europa, pp. 193–4.
56. Werth, Russia at War, p. 274.
Chapter 5
Epigraph: C. Andreyev, Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement: Soviet Reality and Emigré Theories (Cambridge, 1987), p. 209.
1. M. Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: ‘Euthanasia’ in Germany 1900–1945 (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 230–31.
2. B. Krawchenko, ‘Soviet Ukraine under Nazi Occupation’, in Y. Boshyk, Ukraine During World War II (Edmonton, 1986), p. 17.
3. A. Dallin, German Rule in Russia (2nd ed., London, 1981); S. Kudryashov, ‘The Hidden Dimension: Wartime Collaboration in the Soviet Union’, in J. Erickson and D. Dilks, eds., Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies (Edinburgh, 1994), pp. 240–41.
4. O. Caroe, Soviet Empire: The Turks of Central Asia and Stalinism (London, 1967), pp. 247–8.
5. N. Heller and A. Nekrich, Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present (London, 1985), pp. 428–9; figures from M. R. Elliott, ‘Soviet Military Collaborators during World War II’, in Boshyk, Ukraine, pp. 92–6.
6. Elliot, ‘Military Collaborators’, p. 94; S. J. Newland, Cossacks in the German Army, 1941–1945 (London, 1991), pp. 105–6, 116–17; W. Anders, Hitler's Defeat in Russia (Chicago, 1953), pp. 177–9. The figure of 250,000 includes some 50,000 who were incorporated into the Cossack Division (15th SS Cossack Cavalry Corps) and other Cossacks recruited into anti-partisan units, a further twelve reserve regiments and those who served in small numbers in German units, or as non-combatant auxiliaries. The usual figure given for Cossack combatants is from 20,000 to 25,000 in 1943; the larger figure includes all those w
ho fought for or worked for the Germans at some time between 1941 and 1945.
7. Elliot, ‘Military Collaborators’, p. 93.
8. Kudryashov, ‘Hidden Dimension’, pp. 243–5; Elliot, ‘Military Collaborators’, pp. 95–6.
9. Anders, Hitler's Defeat, p. 191.
10. Details from Andreyev, Vlasov, pp. 19–29; J. Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad (London, 1976), pp. 352–3.
11. Andreyev, Vlasov, pp. 38–40.
12. Ibid., pp. 210–15, Appendix B, Vlasov's Open Letter, ‘Why I Decided to Fight Bolshevism.’
13. Ibid., pp. 206–8, Appendix A, The Smolensk Declaration, 27 December 1942.
14. J. Hoffmann, Die Geschichte der Wlassow-Armee (Freiburg, 1984), pp. 205–36.
15. Heller and Nekrich, Utopia, pp. 437–8; Hoffmann, Wlassow-Armee, p.244.
16. Andreyev, Vlasov, pp. 78–9.
17. On German plans for the East see R-D. Müller, Hitlers Ostkrieg und die deutsche Siedlungspolitik (Frankfurt am Main, 1991); M. Burleigh, ‘Nazi Europe’, in N. Ferguson, ed., Virtual History (London, 1997), pp. 317–39; N. Rich, Hitler's War Aims: The Establishment of the New Order (London, 1974), pp. 322 ff.
18. Krawchenko, Soviet Ukraine, pp. 22–3.
19. Rich, War Aims, pp. 359–60.
20. I. Kamenetsky, Hitler's Occupation of Ukraine, 1941–1944: A Study in Totalitarian Imperialism (Milwaukee, 1956), p. 35.
21. Ibid., pp. 43–6.
22. On peasant ‘intellectuals’ see R. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing on the Second World War (London, 1993), pp. 149–51; Krawchenko, ‘Soviet Ukraine’, p. 27; O. Zambinsky, ‘Collaboration of the Population in Occupied Ukrainian Territory: Some Aspects of the Overall Picture’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 10 (1997), p. 149.
23. Krawchenko, pp. 26–7; Zambinsky, ‘Collaboration’, p. 148 on Kiev rations; T. P. Mulligan, The Politics of Illusion and Empire: German Occupation Policy in the Soviet Union 1942–1943 (Westport, Conn. 1988), pp. 93–103 for figures on German food supplies from the USSR. Over 10 million tons of grain and almost 2.5 million tons of hay were taken.
24. Out of 2.8 million Ostarbeiter carried off to Germany, 2.3 million came from the Ukraine. See Krawchenko, ‘Soviet Ukraine’, pp. 27–8; Kamenetsky, Occupation of Ukraine, pp. 46–8.
25. J. Forster, ‘Jewish Policies of the German Military, 1939–1942’, in A. Cohen, ed., The Shoah and the War (New York, 1992), pp. 59–61.
26. J. Schecter and V. V. Luchkov, eds. Khrushchev Remembers: The Glasnost Tapes (New York, 1990), p. 27. For a recent discussion of Stalin's attitude to the Jews see M. Parrish, The Lesser Terror: Soviet State Security, 1939–1953 (London, 1996), pp. 197–200.
27. A. Vaksberg, Stalin Against the Jews (New York, 1994), pp. 64–6; N. Levin, The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917 (2 vols., London, 1990), i, pp. 282–311.
28. Vaksberg, Stalin Against the Jews, pp. 82–6.
29. B-C. Pinchuk, Shtetl Jews under Soviet Rule: Eastern Poland on the Eve of the Holocaust (London, 1990), pp. 66–70, 104–6, 127–32.
30. Vaksberg, Stalin Against the Jews, pp. 105–10; Parrish, Lesser Terror, pp. 200–201.
31. Levin, Jews in the Soviet Union, pp. 363–4; Parrish, Lesser Terror, pp. 200–201.
32. Levin, Jews in the Soviet Union, pp. 379–85, 455–6.
33. C. R. Browning, The Path to Genocide (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 100–106; Browning, ‘Hitler and the Euphoria of Victory: The Path to the Final Solution’, in D. Cesarani, ed., The Final Solution: Origins and Implementation (London, 1994), pp. 142–5.
34. G. Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution (London, 1985), p.67.
35. R. Headland, Messages of Murder: A Study of the Einsatzgruppen of the Security Police and the Security Service 1941–43 (London, 1992), pp. 54–5.
36. Ibid., pp. 59–60.
37. Browning, ‘Hitler and Euphoria’, pp. 139–40. For the wider context of race policy the best study is M. Burleigh and W. Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 (Cambridge, 1991).
38. G. Reitlinger, The Final Solution (London, 1971), pp. 233–4; Levin, Jews in the Soviet Union, pp. 404–6. On the killing of Soviet non-Jewish prisoners, V. E. Korol, ‘The Price of Victory: Myths and Realities’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 9 (1996), p. 419.
39. Reitlinger, Final Solution, p. 235.
40. Ibid., pp. 240–41.
41. Headland, Messages of Murder, p. 105; Zambinsky, ‘Collaboration’, pp. 143–4. In Voroshilovgrad the police found 1,000 volunteers in ten days willing to denounce Jews and Communists.
42. On the background see A. A. Maslov, ‘Concerning the Role of Partisan Warfare in Soviet Military Doctrine of the 1920s and 193os’, Journal of Slavic Military Studies 9 (1996), pp. 891–2; C. Streit, ‘Partisans – Resistance Prisoners of War’, in J. L. Wieczynski, ed., Operation Barbarossa: The German Attack on the Soviet Union, June 22, 1941 (Salt Lake City, 1993), pp. 265–6.
43. J. Stalin, The Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union (New York, 1945), p. 15.
44. J. A. Armstrong, ed., Soviet Partisans in World War II (Madison, 1964), p. 662.
45. M. Cooper, The Phantom War: The German Struggle against Soviet Partisans, 1941–1944 (London, 1979), p. 17.
46. Streit, ‘Partisans’, p. 271.
47. Ibid., p. 269; see too T. Schulte, The German Army and Nazi Policies in Occupied Russia (Oxford, 1989), pp. 317–44, documentary appendix on treatment of partisans and prisoners of war.
48. Streit, ‘Partisans’, p. 270.
49. Cooper, Phantom War, p. 73; on the establishment of a central partisan organization see J. A. Armstrong and K. DeWitt, ‘Organisation and Control of the Partisan Movement’, in Armstrong, Soviet Partisans, pp. 98–103. On the ‘Partisan Guide’ see A. Werth, Russia at War 1941–1945 (London, 1964), p. 710.
50. N. Tec, Defiance: The Bielski Partisans (Oxford, 1993), pp. 41–4, 74–6, 103–6, 202–3, 207–9.
51. On the Ukraine see Cooper, Phantom War, pp. 67–8; Kamenetsky, Occupation of Ukraine, pp. 69–82. On total numbers in the partisan movement there is no real agreement. The exact figures are incapable of discovery because of the very nature of partisan activity. See E. Ziemke, ‘Composition and Morale of the Partisan Movement’, in Armstrong, Soviet Partisans, p. 151; Cooper, Phantom War, pp. 66–8; Werth, Russia at War, pp. 715, 725 gives higher figures.
52. Cooper, Phantom War, p. 59.
53. Armstrong, Soviet Partisans, pp. 750–52, Document 73, diary of V. A. Balakin, January–February 1942.
54. Cooper, Phantom War, p. 69; Ziemke, ‘Composition and Morale’, pp. 148–50.
55. Kamenetsky, Occupation of Ukraine, pp. 69–73; M. Yurkevich, ‘Galician Ukrainians in German Military Formations and in the German Administration’, in Boshyk, Ukraine in World War II, pp. 71–3.
56. Kamenetsky, Occupation of Ukraine, p. 81.
57. Figures in Maslov, ‘Partisan Warfare’, pp. 892–3.
58. Werth, Russia at War, pp. 791–2.
59. Ibid., p. 792.
Chapter 6
Epigraph: A. Werth, Russia at War 1941–1945 (London, 1964), p. 560.
1. J. Erickson, ‘Soviet War Losses’, in J. Erickson and D. Dilks, eds., Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies (Edinburgh, 1994), p. 264.
2. On economic losses see W. Moskoff, The Bread of Affliction: The Food Supply in the USSR during World War II (Cambridge, 1990), pp. 71–2; A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (London, 1989), p. 262.
3. H. Trevor-Roper, ed., Hitler's War Directives (London, 1964), p. 178.
4. C. Andrew and O. Gordievsky, KGB: The Inside Story (London, 1990), p. 224; D. M. Glantz, The Role of Intelligence in Soviet Military Strategy in World War II (Novato, California, 1990), pp. 49–51.
5. M. Heller and A. Nekrich, Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present (London, 1982), p. 391; D. M. Glantz and J. House, When Titans Clashed: How the Red Army Stopped Hitler (London, 1995), p. 121; J. Garrard
and C. Garrard, eds., World War 2 and the Soviet People (London, 1993), p. 19.
6. A. Sella, The Value of Human Life in Soviet Warfare (London, 1992), pp. 158–9; W. Spahr, Zhukov: The Rise and Fall of a Great Captain (Novato, California, 1993), p. 147. Zhukov approved the penal units on 26 September 1942. Each army was ordered to establish from five to ten penal companies.
7. Erickson, ‘Soviet Losses’, p. 262 for figures on penal battalions. Figure for those condemned to death from review by E. Mawdsley in War in History 4 (1997), P. 230.
8. Cited in J. Barber and M. Harrison, The Soviet Home Front: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II (London, 1991), p. 72.
9. I. Ehrenburg, Men – Years – Life: The War Years 1941–1945 (London, 1964), p. 123.
10. A. Werth, Russia at War, pp. 415–16.
11. R. Bosworth, Explaining Auschwitz and Hiroshima: History Writing and the Second World War 1945–1990 (London, 1993), p. 153.
12. Heller and Nekrich, Utopia, p. 407.
13. Ibid., pp. 408–10; W. P. and Z. Coates, A History of Anglo-Soviet Relations (London, 1944), pp. 696–7; on the revival of religion M. Spinka, The Church in Soviet Russia (Oxford, 1956), pp. 82–6.
14. Heller and Nekrich, Utopia, p. 409.
15. R. Parker, Moscow Correspondent (London, 1949), pp. 21–2.
16. Werth, Russia at War, p. 417, from the poem ‘Kill Him!’ published in Pravda.
17. Ibid., p. 414.
18. G. Gibian, ‘World War 2 in Russian National Consciousness’, in Garrard, World War 2, p. 155.
19. A. Seaton, Stalin as Warlord (London, 1976), p. 39; for a critical account of Stalin's behaviour at Tsaritsyn see A. Antonov-Ovseyenko, The Time of Stalin: Portrait of a Tyranny (New York, 1981), pp. 10–14, 20.
20. Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union 1941–1945: a general outline (Moscow, 1970), p. 117.
21. J. Wieder, Stalingrad und die Verantwortung der Soldaten (Munich, 1962), p. 45.
22. G. Zhukov, Reminiscences and Reflections (Moscow, 1985), ii, pp. 83–4; Werth, Russia at War, pp. 448–9; von Hardesty, Red Phoenix: The Rise of Soviet Air Power 1941–1945 (London, 1982), p. 102.
23. W. Warlimont, Inside Hitler's Headquarters (London, 1964), pp. 246–7.
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