Former People: The Final Days of the Russian Aristocracy

by Douglas Smith

  39. Kantor, Voina; Butson, Tsar’s Lieutenant.

  40. Figes, People’s Tragedy, especially pp. 549–50, 644–45, 696–99; Kovalevskii, Istoriia. Brusilov was convinced his son had been executed, though it is possible he died of typhus.

  41. Figes, People’s Tragedy, 696n.

  42. ZU, 221–24; Fusso, Russian Prince, xiii; RGADA, 1263.3.95, 36–37; AVT/V, 1:3.

  43. KNG, 132–33, 358; ZU, 121–23, 154–55, 221–24, 229–40; RGADA, 1263.3.107, 35–38ob; 1263.3.104, 25–26ob.

  44. ZU, 221, 239.

  45. Rodzianko, Perelomy, 48–49, 91. See also Tolstaia-Voeikova, Russkaia sem’ ia.

  46. RGADA, 1263.3.105, 53; 1263.3.107, 35–38ob.

  47. Ibid., 1263.3.95, 41–42ob; 1263.3.104, 109.

  48. Ibid., 41–42ob.

  12: DR. GOLITSYN

  1. AVG/M, 48–50.

  2. Ibid., 8–9, 50; KhiG 10, pt. 1 (2003): 203–12

  3. AVG/M, Appendix II:11.

  4. AVG/M, 11–18.

  5. L’vov, Vospominaniia, 295.

  6. AVG/M, 22–26.

  7. Ibid., 27.

  8. AVG/M, App. I:10, 13; VMG/D, 229; Figes, People’s Tragedy, 650; OGSh, 42.

  9. AVG/M, App. I:7; PG, 402–03.

  10. AVG/M, App. I:8–9; Alexandra, Last Diary, 214.

  11. AVG/M, 58; “Kniaz’ G. E. L’vov,” 140–70.

  12. Figes, People’s Tragedy, 650–51.

  13. Mawdsley, Civil War, 64–68; Lincoln, Red Victory, 234–35; Smele, Civil War, 25–33.

  14. King and Wilson, Fate, 10–25, 282–95; Steinberg and Khrustalëv, Fall, 277–97; Slater, Many Deaths.

  15. King and Wilson, Fate, 296–315.

  16. Ibid., 260–61; Steinberg and Khrustalëv, Fall, 301, 322–23; Preston, Before the Curtain, 106–107.

  17. King and Wilson, Fate, 204–11.

  18. Anichkov, Ekaterinburg, 88, 95, 102.

  19. King and Wilson, Fate, 218–21, 336–37, 504; Cockfield, White Crow, 243–45; Nikolai Mikhailovich, “Pis’mo,” 87.

  20. OGSh, 56–59, 61; AVG/M, 75–76.

  21. ZU, 173.

  22. VMG/D, 333–34.

  23. For one example, see Shcherbatov, Pravo, 56.

  24. Von Meck, As I, 172.

  25. AVG/M, 59–65; VMG/D, 281, 287, 298, 300; AVG/M, Appendix I:15, 19; Appendix IV: 1–6, 22–25; RGADA, 1263.3.94, 111–12ob.

  26. AVG/M, 66–74.

  27. Ibid., 74.

  28. Mawdsley, Civil War, 72, 137–38, 141–42; Lincoln, Red Victory, 234, 246.

  29. Mawdsley, Civil War, 143–50; Smele, Civil War, 71–182; Lincoln, Red Victory, 235–45.

  30. Lincoln, Red Victory, 245–46; Mawdsley, Civil War, 185.

  31. AVG/M, 74–75, 79; L’vov, Vospominaniia, 295; Thompson, Russia, 64, 77, 79; Figes, People’s Tragedy, 651–52.

  32. AVG/M, Appendix II:17–18.

  33. Mawdsley, Civil War, 184, 201; Smele, Civil War, 215–48, 307–26.

  34. Lincoln, Red Victory, 250–52.

  35. Ibid., 244; Smele, Civil War, 277–89.

  36. Smele, Civil War, 169–81, 439; Lincoln, Red Victory, 253–54; Brovkin, Behind, 205–206; Mawdsley, Civil War, 207.

  37. AVG/M, Appendix II:18; Appendix III:2–4.

  38. Lincoln, Red Victory, 259–65; Mawdsley, Civil War, 186–90, 204–207.

  39. AVG/M, 81, and Appendix III, 5–6.

  40. Smele, Civil War, 543–50.

  41. AVG/M, 85–86; Lincoln, Red Victory, 265–66.

  42. Smele, Civil War, 587–89; Mawdsley, Civil War, 318.

  43. AVG/M, 86–92.

  44. YP/D, 9, 27; RGADA, 1263.3.107, 28–28ob.

  45. Smele, Civil War, 590–92; Mawdsley, Civil War, 318.

  46. AVG/M, Appendix III:7.

  47. Mawdsley, Civil War, 319.

  48. YP/D, 1, 3; AVG/M, Appendix III:16; KhiG 10, pt. 1 (2003): 203–12.

  49. AVG/M, Appendix III:8–10; YP/D, 1, 3.

  50. AVG/M, Appendix II:15–16.

  51. Ibid., 16–17.

  52. Ibid., Appendix III:13–14.

  53. Smele, Civil War, 549–50; Lincoln, Red Victory, 266; Mawdsley, Civil War, 319. The sources disagree on the exact date of Kolchak’s departure from Omsk; I cite here that given by Smele.

  54. Smele, Civil War, 584–638, 664–65; Mawdsley, Civil War, 319–20; Acton, ed., Critical Companion, 715.

  55. YP/D, 2–12.

  56. Ibid., 13, 24; Mawdsley, Civil War, 322. On Semenov, see Khitun, Dvorianskie prosiata, 230–81; Bisher, White Terror; Palmer, Bloody White Baron; Williams, Olga’s Story, 156–97.

  57. See Fel’shtinskii, Krasnyi terror.

  58. Smele, Civil War, 385n.176.

  59. Rodzianko, Tattered Banners, 262.

  60. Brovkin, Behind, 205–206; Welch, Russian Court, 101.

  61. YP/D, 14–15.

  62. Ibid., 15.

  63. Ibid., 18.

  64. RGADA, 1263.3.107, 28–28ob.

  65. YP/D, 27; AVG/M, Appendix III:10.

  66. See Taskina, ed., Russkii Kharbin.

  67. YP/D, 21.

  68. Ibid., 20; L’vov, Vospominaniia, 5.

  69. AVG/M, 94–97; YP/D, 25.

  70. AVG/M, Barnes epilogue, 66; RGADA, 1263.3.103, 13–13ob; 1263.3.94, 109–10; A. V. Golitsyn’s identity card, 6th Irkutskii Svodnyi Evako-gospital’ Krasnoi Armii, July 26, 1920, Golitsyn Family Papers, box 3, HIA.

  71. T. Galitzine, Russian Revolution; PG, 60–61, 243, 259; Anichkov, Ekaterinburg, 163, 218; King and Wilson, Fate, 342.

  72. AVG/M, Appendix IV:22–25; RGADA, 1263.3.94, 111–112ob; Grech, Venok, 27–28.

  73. RGADA, 1263.3.94, 4–5ob.

  74. Golitsyn Family Papers, boxes 2 and 3, HIA.

  13: EXODUS

  1. Cursed Days, 10–11.

  2. Ibid., 95.

  3. Marullo, Russian Requiem, 287–88, 294, 339; see also Fen, Remember, 101–200.

  4. Marullo, Russian Requiem, 294, 299.

  5. Ibid., 305–306.

  6. Cursed Days, 139–40.

  7. Ibid., 223.

  8. Ibid., 107. For more on cocaine, see Zinovieff, Red Princess, 124–25.

  9. Cursed Days, 165.

  10. Marullo, Russian Requiem, 352. Bunin paraphrases here Joseph’s interpretation of the pharaoh’s dream in Genesis 4:4.

  11. Ibid., 305, 347–50; Cursed Days, 214; Z. N. Yusupov, “Diary,” January 12, February 23, 24, April 5, 6, 1919; Lincoln, Red Victory, 320–24; Figes, People’s Tragedy, 676–79. On the often exaggerated role of anti-Semitism among the old regime elites at the time, see Rendle, Defenders, 7–8, 171–72.

  12. Lincoln, Red Victory, 317–24. Lincoln writes, likely with exaggeration, that Khmelnitsky’s men killed “some two hundred thousand Jews.” See also Rogger, Jewish Policies; Klier and Lambroza, eds., Pogroms.

  13. Marullo, Russian Requiem, 8–9, 307; Cursed Days, 147–49, 159–61, 181–84, 245–46.

  14. Cursed Days, 243.

  15. Ibid., 20–21; Marullo, Russian Requiem, 291.

  16. Marullo, Russian Requiem, 358–59.

  17. Cursed Days, 23.

  18. See Mawdsley, Civil War, 377–86.

  19. Shcherbatov, Pravo, 67.

  20. Always with Honor, 332–33. The leading Western historian of the war largely concurs with their assessments. Mawdsley, Civil War, 386–95. See also Buldakov, “Revoliutsiia, nasilie,” 9–10.

  21. Z. N. Yusupov, “Diary,” February 7, 8, 10, 1919; YPS/V, 43; Krasko, Tri veka, 352.

  22. Welch, Russian Court, 11–17, 27; V. E. Galitzine, “Diary,” March 25–April 5, 1919.

  23. Krasko, Tri veka, 353.

  24. Ibid., 176–79; Z. N. Yusupov, “Diary,” April 7–8, 20, 1919.

  25. Z. N. Yusupov, “Diary,” April 13, 1919; Krasko, Tri veka, 353.

  26. Krasko, Tri veka, 357–59; e-mail communication from Kyra Cheremeteff, September 28, 2011.

  27. Obolenskii, Moia zhizn’, 739–51. The Nabokovs left the Crimea in March 1919
, never thinking they would never return. Speak, 251, 253.

  28. Rodzianko, Perelomy, 102–103. Ellipses in original.

  29. Lobanov-Rostovsky, Grinding Mill, 373–74.

  30. ABM; V. E. Galitzine, “Diary,” March 3–April 5, 1919.

  31. PG, 510; Irina Galitzine, Spirit.

  32. Always with Honor, 318, 324; Mawdlsey, Civil War, 374.

  33. Brovkin, Behind, 346–49.

  34. Smirnova, Byvshie liudi, 82–83.

  35. Shcherbatov, Pravo, 69–70.

  36. Smirnova, Byvshe liudi, 82–83; OPR, 9, 9–10n.8.

  37. OPR, 166.

  38. Mawdsley, Civil War, 322–24.

  39. For various estimates, see Rendle, Defenders, 213–14; Raymond, Russian Diaspora, 7–10; Horsbrugh-Porter, Memories, 1; Shoumatoff, Russian Blood, 298; Glenny and Stone, eds., Other Russia, xx; Raleigh, “Russian Civil War,” 166.

  40. Engel and Posadskaya-Vanderbeck, Revolution, 102.

  41. Trifonov, Likvidatsiia, 168.

  42. Krasnaia gazeta, no. 10, January 14, 1922, p. 2.

  43. Von Meck, As I, 189.

  44. Trifonov, Likvidatsiia, 395–96.

  45. Fitzpatrick, Tear Off, 57.

  14: SCHOOL OF LIFE

  1. Mawdsley, Civil War, 399–400; Riasanovsky and Steinberg, History, 474–75; Raleigh, “Russian Civil War,” 166–67; Ball, “Building,” 168–72.

  2. Riasanovsky and Steinberg, History, 474; Raleigh, “Russian Civil War,” 147, 166.

  3. Riasanovsky and Steinberg, History, 474–75; Lincoln, Red Victory, 390, 467–73, 489–511; Figes, People’s Tragedy, 768; Raleigh, “Russian Civil War,” 147–48, 161–62; Ball, “Building,” 168, 171.

  4. Ball, “Building,” 168–71, 179, 181, 182; Riasanovsky and Steinberg, History, 474–76.

  5. Duranty, Duranty Reports, 38, 41.

  6. Hullinger, Reforging, 204–205.

  7. Ibid., 205–208, 214–15.

  8. Tolstoy, I Worked, 58, 62.

  9. Almedingen, Tomorrow, 291–92.

  10. KNG, 156–59; Fen, Remember, 265; Sollohub, Russian Countess, 188.

  11. KNG, 147–50, 159.

  12. ZVG, 4:86–87; ZU, 278–79.

  13. NIOR RGB, 265.233.37, 71ob–73.

  14. RGADA, 1263.3.100, 105–105ob; 1263.3.90, 28.

  15. ZVG, 4:87.

  16. ZU, 266–67; Schmemann, Echoes, 10–12, 106, 199–204, 190–203, 248; G. N. Trubetskoi, Gody, 59–68.

  17. RGADA, 1263.3.94, 21–26; 1263.3.100, 50ob; 1263.3.103, 11–12ob, 14–15ob.

  18. Golder, War, 299.

  19. ZVG, 4:86–87; RGADA, 1263.3.104, 19–22ob; PG, 433–34.

  20. Pautenaude, Big Show, 197–99; Brooks, “Press,” in Russia, ed. Fitzpatrick, 244–45.

  21. Pautenaude, Big Show, 278–79; IDG, 103–28, 149–50.

  22. ZU, 317–20; A. V. Trubetskoi, Puti, 6, 9; Smirnova, “. . . pod,” 253–54.

  23. World Can End, 317–18.

  24. ZU, 237–38; RGADA, 1263.3.100, 116–17ob; 1263.3.103, 7; 1263.3.104, 4–5ob.

  25. KNG, 150–51.

  26. IDG, 101–102.

  27. Reswick, I Dreamt, 36–38, 42, 160–61.

  28. Fen, Remember, 255–59, 273–74.

  29. Ibid., 290–92; Smith, The Pearl.

  30. ZU, 358; Volkov, Gorodu, 404; Schmemann, Echoes, 252.

  31. Hullinger, Reforging, 321–23.

  32. RGADA, 1263.3.104, 19–22ob.

  33. Pautenaude, Big Show, 51–52, 278–79, 302–11; Brovkin, Russia, 147–49; Reswick, I Dreamt, 113–14; Hullinger, Reforging, 319–28.

  34. ZU, 320; PG, 430; IDG, 101–102.

  35. Leggett, Cheka, 291–92; Brooks, “Press,” in Russia, ed. Fitzpatrick, 244–45; Hullinger, Reforging, 144–45.

  36. Gorsuch, “Flappers and Foxtrotters,” chap. 6 in Youth; Starr, Red, 90–93; Reswick, I Dreamt, 113–14.

  37. RGADA, 1263.3.97, 10–17, 65–66ob.

  38. Ibid., 1263.3.106, 73–74ob.

  15: NOBLE REMAINS

  1. ABM; KhiG 13 (2006): 124; ZU, 283.

  2. ZU, 281–83.

  3. Ibid., 282–83.

  4. OGSh, 109–10.

  5. ZU, 283.

  6. YPS/V, 56.

  7. AVT/V, 1:16.

  8. KhiG 13 (2006): 127.

  9. NIOR RGB, 265.233.37, 73ob–76ob.

  10. ABM.

  11. TAS, 421.

  12. NIOR RGB, 265.233.37, 65–66, 78.

  13. KhiG 9 (2002): 111; KhiG 11, pt. 1 (2004): 135–37.

  14. ZU, 324; PG, 455–56.

  15. ZU, 281–88; NIOR RGB, 265.233.37, 74–76ob.

  16. ZU, 287–88.

  17. YPS/V, 56; ZVG, 2:90.

  18. ZVG, 2:91.

  19. Ibid., 2:91–92.

  20. Ibid., 2:90; KhiG 13 (2006): 125–26, 129.

  21. ZVG, 2: 91, 93.

  22. KhiG 1 (1996): 145–46; Muratov, Rod, 126; RGADA, 1263.3.104, 19–22ob.

  23. ZU, 241; ZVG, 2:89; OPR, 421; Raevskii, Piat’ vekov, 272; Sofia Golitsyn, undated letter, Golitsyn Family Papers, box 1, folder 1, HIA.

  24. NIOR RGB, 265.233. 37, 76ob–77ob; KhiG 13 (2006): 129–30; ZU, 307–13.

  25. ZU, 225–26, 257, 305; KhiG 10, pt. 1 (2003): 74–75; AVT/V, 1:6–8.

  26. ZU, 56–57, 315–17, 347; Smirnova, “. . . pod.”

  27. ZU, 317–20; Fusso, Russian Prince, xiii–xiv; A. V. Trubetskoi, Puti, 6, 9; AVT/V, 1:8–9; Smirnova, “. . . pod,” 245, 253–54; Varlamov, Prishvin.

  28. Muratov, Rod, 124–52; KhiG 13 (2006): 128, 130–31; I. V. Golitsyn, “Otets,” 89; OPR, 421; ZU, 342–43, 380–81, 410–11. Trubetskoy’s stories have been translated in Fusso, Russian Prince.

  29. ZU, 295–96.

  30. Raevskii, Piat’ vekov, 321–22; ZU, 306.

  31. ZVG, 4:80.

  32. Ibid., 3:89–91; MVG/M, 68. Peter the Great gave the village of Pebalg to Boris Sheremetev, Nikolai’s great-great-great-great grandfather, in 1711 for his services in the Great Northern War.

  33. Fen, Remember, 239–49.

  34. Kimerling, “Civil Rights”; Alexopoulos, Stalin’s Outcasts, 1–6, 97; Pethybridge, Social Prelude, 197–99; Fitzpatrick, Tear Off, 30–34; idem, Everyday, 11; Dobkin, “Lishentsy”; Brovkin, Russia, 31–32; Osokina, Our Daily Bread, 80.

  35. Fitzpatrick, Tear Off, 34, 43–45, 50, 54, 59–60; Smirnova, Byvshie liudi, 46–48.

  36. Sevost’ianov, ed., “Sovershenno sekretno,” vol. 1, pt. 1, 94–95, 125–26, 195–96.

  37. Von Meck, As I, 412.

  38. Rendle, “Family, Kinship,” 14.

  39. Solzhenitsyn, Gulag, 2:53; Brovkin, Russia, 11–13, 16–17, 30–36, 219–22, 198–99; Chuikina, Dvorianskaia pamiat’, 46–51; Raleigh, “Russian Civil War,” 154; Shearer, Policing, 259–60.

  40. Brovkin, Russia, 184.

  41. KhiG 13 (2006): 109.

  16: THE FOX-TROT AFFAIR

  1. Brovkin, Russia, 2, 213–15.

  2. Smirnova, Byvshie liudi, 71, 147, 153–54; Fitzpatrick, Tear Off, 36.

  3. Andrew and Gordievsky, KGB, 85, 94, 97–106; Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword, 33, 34–35, 42; Perry and Pleshakov, Flight, 280–92, 296; and, with caution, Nikulin, Mertvaia zyb’.

  4. PG, 64–66, 423–24; KNG, 162–75; OPR, 69–71.

  5. Troyat, Gorky, 62, 65, 76, 100; Dolzhanskaia and Osipova, “Dorogaia Ekaterina,” 21–30; OPR, 5–6; Mering, “Politicheskii krasnyi krest.”

  6. Dolzhanskaia and Osipova, “Dorogaia Ekaterina,” 30–47; OPR, 7.

  7. ZU, 327–28.

  8. OPR, 71.

  9. ZU, 337–38. Uncle Misha was Mikhail Lopukhin, the brother of Sergei’s mother, executed by the Bolsheviks.

  10. Ibid., 329.

  11. KNG, 221–22.

  12. Von Meck, As I, 245–51.

  13. TAS, 423.

  14. ZU, 330; RGADA, 1287.1.3304, 1–2ob; Kovaleva, Staraia Moskva, 139–40; S. D. Sheremetev, Vozdvizhenskii naugol’nyi dom.

  15. YPS/V, 9; ABM; ZU, 354–55; Krasko
, Tri veka, 392; KhiG 13 (2006): 126.

  16. SH, 2:169.

  17. ZU, 329; MVG/M, 68–69; Elagin, Ukroshchenie, 52–53; Kaufman, Pervaia Turandot, 35, 309–10.

  18. ZU, 325–26; ABM; SVS, 20; OPR, 23, 405–406, 480–81; KhiG 7 (2000): 294–95.

  19. KNG, 210–11, 214–16; AVT/V, 1:11–12; Kireev, Dnevnik, 406.

  20. KNG, 215–16, 243–53; PG, 68–70.

  21. M. Osorgin, Zametki, 617.

  22. O. Volkov, Gorodu, 404; Schmemann, Echoes, 250–53. On mousetraps, Lincoln, War’s Dark Shadow, 203; Sollohub, Russian Countess, 148; OPR, 34.

  23. ZU, 359–60; Schmemann, Echoes, 254–58.

  24. ZU, 365–70; V. M. Golitsyn, “Vyderzhki,” 34.

  25. ZU, 370.

  26. Ibid., 371; V. M. Golitsyn, Notes to “Vyderzhki,” 35, 36; PG, 435–37.

  27. ZU, 361–62, 371.

  28. PG, 435–37; ZU, 387–88; V. M. Golitsyn, Notes to “Vyderzhki,” 48; OPR, 241.

  29. ZVG, 3:90.

  30. ZU, 394.

  31. KNG, 276.

  17: VIRTUE IN RAGS

  1. Letter of Alexandra Sipyagin, February 16, 1921, private collection.

  2. RGALI, 195.1.5018a, 1.

  3. Kiriushina, “Stranitsy,” 185.

  4. RGALI, 195.1.4983, 1–100.

  5. NIOR RGB, 265.233.37, 73–76ob.

  6. ABM; SH, 2:145.

  7. SH, 2:145; OR RNB, 585. 4614, 4ob; ABM.

  8. OGSh, 104. Sofia Vasilevna is not identified.

  9. ABM.

  10. Wassiltschikow, Verschwundenes Russland, 203–204; ABM; Karnishina, “Vozvrashchaias,” 29.

  11. ABM.

  12. Ibid.

  13. Ibid.; OR RNB, 585.4614.

  14. Alekseeva, “Velikii terpelivets,” 26; ABM; SVS, 245.

  15. ZVG, 5:83; Shumikhin, “Konets.”

  16. Kovaleva, Staraia Moskva, 3. My thanks to Mariana Markova for helping with this translation.

  17. Koval’, Kniaz’ Vasilii, 231–32.

  18. Moscow Memoirs, 197.

  19. Koval,’ Kniaz’ Vasilii, 231–32.

  20. Ibid., 175, 226–72.

  21. OPR, 71; ZU, 398–99.

  22. KhiG 5 (1998): 114–16; KhiG 1 (1996): 150–52; Osokina, Our Daily Bread, 72–74.

  23. Notes to “Vyderzhki,” 40; letter from M. V. Golitsyn to A. V. Golitsyn, Moscow, December 1, 1925, Golitsyn family papers, box 1, folder 2, HIA; ZU, 375; ZVG, 4:78.

  24. ZU, 347; Smirnova, Byvshie liudi, 265.

  25. Smirnova, Byvshie liudi, 184.

  26. ZU, 354.

  27. Ibid., 419–20, 434, 437–49.

  28. Ibid., 413.