The Seeds of Life
Page 32
as new, 62
faith, 127, 134, 189
Fallopian tubes, 100, 121
Farley, John, 226
fertilization, 212, 227
eggs and, 220, 223, 263
as external, 217–218, 262
mechanics of, 247, 252
through semen, 84, 216, 220, 225, 226
by sperm, 154n, 224
fetus, 49
fire, 250
Fitzgerald, F. Scott, 251
Flammarion, Camille, 288n
follicles, 101
for eggs, 200
Graafian follicles as, 100, 254
Fontenelle, Bernard de, 186, 194
food, 246
formaldehyde, 161
fossils, 92, 93
Foster, George, 241–242
France, 57, 68
Frankenstein (Shelley, M.), 245
Franklin, Ben, 234
frogs, 221
eggs from, 217–219, 253
electricity and, 238–239, 240
heart of, 222
mating and, 141
in silk pants, 209–219, 219n
tadpoles as, 218, 219, 226
toads and, 65
Galen, 39, 64, 75
on conception, 70
Galileo, 105, 286n
The Starry Messenger by, 96
Galvani, Luigi, 238–241, 246
Gasking, Elizabeth, 224
gelding, 71
generation, 67
regeneration as, 174, 178, 179
as spontaneous, 205, 212, 214
On Generation (Aristotle), 32
On Genesis of the Egg of Mammals and of Men (paper, Baer), 257
genetics, 138, 170, 264
DNA and, 204
Mendel and, 198
genitals, 19, 43, 229
Gentleman’s Magazine, 162, 232
geology, 92
Germany, 180, 252
gladiators, 39, 40
God, 18, 31, 175, 192
biology and, 35
circles and, 22
conception and, 131
craftsmanship of, 139
creation of, 113
as designer, 97, 131
faith in, 127, 134
image of, 152
laws of, 177
as mathematician, 11, 21
plan by, 156
power of, 132, 181
restoration by, 36
riddles and, 130
secrets of, 40
text dictated by, 187
theories and, 146
Gonzalez-Crussi, Frank, 97
Gould, Stephen Jay, 271n
Graafian follicles, 100, 254
Graham, James, 236–237
grave robbery, 59, 60
gravity, 197–198, 232
Greeks, 38, 44, 76
Grew, Nehemiah, 118
Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 188
Haller, Albrecht von, 185, 257
Halley, Edmond, 127
the Hard Problem, 15
Hare, William, 60
Hartsoeker, Nicolaas, 153
Harvey, William, 66 (fig.), 98, 148, 216
allies of, 146
analogies and, 85
as anatomist, 64–69
On the Circulation of the Blood by, 66, 87
on conception, 119
deer and, 2–4
Disputations Touching the Generation of Animals by, 86
on embryo development, 145
experiments of, 82
as physician, 1
Hawking, Stephen, 110
heart, 147
arteries in, 48
da Vinci and, 62
of frogs, 222
as pump, 1, 67
soul and, 2
heat, 231, 250, 251
Helmholtz, Hermann von, 251
heredity
questions of, 167
for scientists, 164–165, 185
sex and, 160, 170
hermaphrodites, 142
Hertwig, Oscar, 260–262
Hervey, John, 160
Highmore, Nathaniel, 72
Hippocrates, 91
historians, 22, 204, 221, 235
history, 41, 114, 220
Hoefnagel, Joris, 140 (fig.)
Hogarth, William, 163, 164 (fig.)
Holland, 90
Hood, Thomas, 59n
Hooke, Robert, 108 (fig.), 192
cell term by, 260
Micrographia by, 107, 187
at Royal Society, 105
theory of, 109
Howard, John, 161
human body
for anatomists, 47, 55, 59
anatomy of, 231
blood in, 67
complexity of, 42
dissection and, 44, 47
secrets of, 13
vital force in, 185
humans, 25, 81, 131, 137
benefits for, 105
development and, 18
electricity by, 230, 240
embryo as, 153
insects and, 138
penises and, 91n
preservation of, 19
hymns, 36, 139
hypotheses, 14
ideas, 16, 41, 201, 205
identity, 196, 264
ignorance, 27
infertility, 26
Ingenhousz, Jan, 193
Inhorn, Marcia, 33
insects, 112
authority on, 176
development for, 139, 140
plants and, 213
study of, 10, 138, 143
“Joy to the World” (Watts), 36
Kant, Immanuel, 168, 255
Keele, Kenneth, 49
Knox, Robert, 60
Lake Geneva, 244
Lancet, 115–116, 278n
language
of anatomists, 99
mathematics as, 12, 13
as written, 183
Laqueur, Thomas, 70
Latin, 110
Lavoisier, Antoine, 250
laws, 198, 251, 255
about dissection, 58
of God, 177
of mathematics, 128
as mechanical, 129
of nature, 176
of perspective, 7
Leclerc, Georges-Louis, 199–200
lectures, 154
Leeuwenhoek, Antony van, 113, 122, 192, 264, 268
animalcules and, 104–107, 216
aphid writings by, 177
calculations by, 112
capillaries and, 112
enemies of, 150
introduction for, 103
lenses and, 108
letters from, 118, 282n
microscope and, 119, 150 (fig.), 150n
on rabbits, 169
techniques of, 109
Leibniz, Gottfried, 151
computer by, 183–184
Leiden University, 92
lenses
experimentation with, 108
eyeglasses as, 108n
magnifying glass as, 105, 107, 172
telescopes as, 187, 188, 189
See also microscopes
Leyden jar, 233
Liceti, Fortunio, 166
life, 246
building blocks of, 228
cells as, 259
conception of, 85
as microscopic, 152
mysteries of, 13
organisms and, 9, 10, 76, 101, 117, 201, 247
origin experiments on, 214
science and, 255
study of, 67
Lightman, Alan, 247
lightning, 234
Linnaeus, Carl, 217
liver, 48
Locke, John, 191
Essay Considering Human Understanding by, 166
logic, 122, 134
machines, 18, 175
animals as, 173
body as, 87
devices and, 182
as programmable, 183, 194
magic, 77
magnifying glass, 105, 107, 172
Malebranche, Nicolas, 134
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 28–30
Malpighi, Marcello, 134
mammals, 71, 84, 101, 257
Marshall, Lorna, 31
“Mary’s Ghost” (Hood), 59n
masturbation, 156–157, 158 (fig.)
mathematicians, 209
Buffon as, 181, 199
God as, 11, 21
mathematics, 136, 190n
analysis and, 210
language of, 12, 13
law of, 128
music and, 7
mating
for animals, 26
for aphids, 178n
frogs and, 141
mammals and, 101
for snails, 142 (fig.)
matter, 16, 250
McMahon, Darrin, 42
medicine, 37
community of, 27
dogma and, 45
in nineteenth-century, 74
pantheon of, 1
quackery in, 240
students of, 62–63
writers of, 158
Melzi, Francesco, 50–51
Mendel, Gregor, 169, 198
menstruation, 27
blood from, 45, 74
pregnancy and, 75
Merrick, Joseph, the Elephant Man, 162
Michelangelo, 247
Micrographia (Hooke), 107, 187
microscopes, 103, 189, 215, 262
animalcules through, 104
creatures under, 115, 245
design of, 109
dogs under, 121
Leeuwenhoek and, 119, 150 (fig.), 150n
objection to, 191
plaque under, 111
polyps under, 174
power of, 135
sperm under, 152, 227
microscopists, 125, 151, 189
military, 43
milk, 45
Milky Way, 7, 195
Miller, Jonathan, 62
The Miracle of Nature, or the Structure of the Female Uterus (Swammerdam), 102
miscarriage, 101
model, 184
as chemical, 222, 223
of development, 196, 202
one-sex as, 71, 72–73, 81, 97
molecules, 249
Mona Lisa (da Vinci), 49
On Monsters and Marvels (Paré), 167
Moray, Robert, 213
moths, 143–144
murder, 60
muscles, 93
music
mathematics and, 7
musicians and, 229
notations for, 183
Naples, Italy, 8
National Enquirer, 166
National Science Foundation, 110
Natural History (Leclerc), 199
Natural History of Insects (Réaumur), 176
naturalists, 178
nature, 197
debate over, 27
features of, 25
forces of, 232
laws of, 176
patterns in, 146
of reality, 133
Needham, John Tuberville, 215
Needham, Joseph, 32
Nero, 38 (fig.), 272n
A New Treatise Concerning the Generative Organs of Women (de Graaf, R.), 96
Newton, Isaac, 69, 199, 279n, 286n
Principia Mathematica, 190n
Nollet, Jean-Antoine, 233
observations, 9, 46, 173, 204
of bacteria, 111
as correct, 155
heredity and, 164
hours of, 217
procreation and, 118
as scientific, 11
of semen, 114
Ockham’s razor, 190
On the Circulation of the Blood by (Harvey), 66, 87
On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (Copernicus), 55
organisms, 194
development of, 145
as living, 9, 10, 76, 101, 117, 201, 247
as new, 174
organs, 95, 97
ostriches as, 82, 83
ovaries, 3
of dogs, 256
Graafian follicles in, 100
testicles and, 94
ovists, 155, 159, 225
embryo and, 126
spermists and, 125, 148, 169
owls, 210
Paley, William, 129, 279n
pamphlets, 157n, 161
papyrus manuscripts, 31
parasites, 116 (fig.)
sperm as, 116, 151, 188, 225, 252
Paré, Ambroise, 167
parents, 126, 198
babies and, 8, 21
traits from, 165, 168, 180, 227
Pascal, Blaise, 191
Pasteur, Louis, 216
patients, 158
patterns, 23
penises, 20
birds with, 83
depictions of, 44
erection for, 45–46
humans and, 91n
Pepys, Samuel, 58
philosophers, 158, 212
photosynthesis, 193n
physicians, 1, 27, 39, 53
as royal, 19, 214
scientists and, 166
physicists, 129, 187, 279n
physiology, 61
Pinto-Correia, Clara, 22
plants, 25, 248
insects and, 213
under microscope, 260
photosynthesis for, 193n
sex and, 120
Polidori, John, 243
The Vampyre by, 245n
polyps, 172–174
Pope, Alexander, 192
power, 139, 246
of God, 132, 181
as investigative, 192
of microscopes, 135
of reason, 134
preformationists, 147, 169, 203
attacks on, 180, 181
fight for, 202
mockery for, 197
pregnancy, 23
deer and, 3–4
menstruation and, 75
miscarriage and, 101
sex and, 24, 33–34
for women, 162
Prévost, Jean-Louis, 253
Principia Mathematica (Newton), 190n
printing press, 108
prisoners, 52n
proof, 145
Pross, Addy, 196
Protestants, 90
rabbits, 160–161, 169, 265
Ray, John, 146
reality, 133
Réaumur, René, 175
Natural History of Insects, 176
Redi, Francesco, 214
religion, 138
believers in, 19
biologists and, 128
crisis of, 258
mystics and, 147
science and, 11
sex and, 34
Rembrandt, 52
reproduction
anatomy and, 83, 93
sex and, 13–14, 89
women and, 74
reptiles. See snakes
resurrection men. See grave robbery
Richmann, Georg, 235, 287n
riddles, 16, 23
construction of, 12
God’s role as, 130
heredity as, 160, 170
plants and, 120
procreation as, 120
sex as, 68, 120, 230
for theologians, 36
Ritter, Johann, 235
Roger, Jacques, 159
Roget, Peter, 253
Romans, 38
Romantic movement, 252
Royal College of Surgeons, 241
Royal Society, 89, 285n
dormouse testicle to, 92
founder Boyle of, 99
Hooke at, 105
letters to, 102, 104, 114, 115, 118, 136, 169
records of, 110
requests from, 106
uterus to, 95
Ruhe, Jacob, 180
samples, 112–113, 150
Satan, 65
scale, 195
Schleiden, Matthias, 258–259
Schliemann, Heinrich, 260
Schwa
nn, Theodor, 258–259
Schwarzschild, Martin, 85
science, 65, 194
credos in, 41
early days of, 113
history of, 114, 220
life and, 255
as Newtonian, 199
religion and, 11
textbooks and, 85
withdrawal from, 147
Scientific Revolution, 12, 186
scientists, 9, 13, 132, 182, 191
beliefs of, 213
Christians as, 35
citation of, 119
clergy as, 205, 233
as detectives, 184
differences between, 202
eggs and, 88
electricity for, 228
as explorers, 40
faith for, 189
heredity and, 164–165, 185
males as, 16, 226
as modern, 15, 41–42
physicians and, 166
as problem solvers, 186
reaction of, 211
scolding by, 146
shift for, 138
theories for, 14
understanding for, 136
sea urchins, 261–262
semen, 3, 20, 76, 197, 200
animals of, 114–122, 149, 153
blood and, 75, 77, 81, 88
fertilization through, 84, 216, 220, 225, 226
from frogs, 218
observations of, 114
ovists and, 126
production of, 72
purpose of, 29
role of, 102
value of, 159
senses, 211n, 234
sex, 7, 141n, 186, 200
anatomy and, 90
babies and, 15–22, 29, 37–51, 170
in birds, 83
conception and, 221
cultures and, 25
fluids and, 97
heredity and, 160, 170
hermaphrodites and, 142
models and, 71, 72–73, 81, 97
physiology of, 61
plants and, 120
pregnancy and, 24, 33–34
religion and, 34
reproduction and, 13–14, 89
as riddle, 68, 120, 230
scandals and, 243
sexuality and, 248
theories about, 26, 69, 73, 236
as transport system, 153
women and, 19, 28
Shakespeare, 11, 57, 58n, 152
sharks, 93, 94 (fig.)
Shelley, Mary, 242
Frankenstein, 245
Shelley, Percy, 243
Sigaud, Joseph-Aignan, 228
silkworms, 111, 143–144
sin, 40, 144
skeleton, 55–57
skeptics, 154, 179, 255
skin, 56, 112–113
snails
decapitation of, 178, 210
mating for, 142 (fig.)
snakes
analogies and, 221
venom of, 214, 221
viper powder from, 213
Society of Naturalists, 257
sonar, 211n
soul, 2
South America, 33
Spain, 68
Spallanzani, Lazzaro, 209, 215, 219n
experiments of, 230
inspiration for, 217, 219
reputation of, 254
statue of, 218 (fig.)
spaying, 71
spectators, 39, 53–54
sperm, 8, 17, 45, 91, 177
as cells, 122, 156, 223
conception and, 136
discovery of, 115, 121, 149
fertilization by, 154n, 224
under microscope, 152, 227
as parasites, 116, 151, 188, 225, 252
spermists
criticisms of, 136