Civilization One: The World is Not as You Thought it Was

by Christopher Knight

Night 2 The same star appears from the east

  The Earth has revolved once on its axis and travelled through one Megalithic degree of its solar orbit

  One turn of the Earth can be gauged by marking the position of a star.

  Venus, after passing across the face of the Sun (known as the inferior conjunction or transit) rises ahead of it by anything up to two hours or more, and precedes it across the sky. So bright is Venus (known in this form as ‘the morning star’) in the reflected light of the Sun that it can be seen during the lightest part of the day if one knows where to look. Eventually, after approximately 72 days, it reaches its maximum elongation as the morning star (the greatest apparent distance from the Sun when viewed from Earth). It then drops back towards the Sun and crosses in a superior conjunction, after which it emerges as what is known as ‘the evening star’. In a repeat of its daytime movement it gradually moves away from the Sun, eventually setting after it. Ultimately, it reaches maximum elongation and then falls back towards to the Sun to begin its cycle again.

  During these movements (which are directly related to the fact that the Earth is also travelling around the Sun) Venus takes a peculiar path through the zodiac. For periods of about two weeks at a time (and sometimes more), Venus moves quickly through the zodiac, bettering the Sun’s 59 minutes of arc per day by up to 17 minutes of arc. At other times, because the Earth is catching up to Venus as it too travels around the Sun, Venus can appear to stand still or even fall back within the zodiac. At such times it is referred to as being ‘retrograde’.

  It is during its most rapid movement within the zodiac that Venus presents itself as the perfect ‘clock’ against which to check the half Megalithic Yard pendulum. At these times a Venus day can exceed the sidereal day by 303 seconds of time. (This Venus day being an Earth day that can be measured between Venus appearing at a specific point relative to a point on the horizon and it doing so again the next day.) This makes such a Venus day 86,467 seconds in length, as opposed to 186,164 seconds for the sidereal day.

  When using Venus passing between the suggested angled framework in order to check the pendulum across one 366th of the horizon or sky, it will be observed that this planet behaves slightly differently to a star. Because Venus is also travelling in the opposite direction to the turning sky, it will take longer to pass across the one Megalithic-degree gap than would a star. Let us look at an example set for Orkney, Scotland, where we estimate such calculations must have regularly been made by our Megalithic ancestors.

  One Venus day (with the planet travelling at maximum speed within the zodiac) is equal to 86,467 seconds

  This means that in order to complete 1 Megalithic Degree, Venus would take 236.2486388 seconds. One 366th of this figure is 0.64548807071 seconds and this should be the period of one beat of the half Megalithic Yard pendulum if Venus was to reliably do the job we expect of it.

  Meanwhile, we need to discover the time taken for one beat of a half Megalithic Yard pendulum of 41.48328 centimetres at Orkney. The acceleration due to gravity at this latitude is 981.924 centimetres/second2. A quick calculation tells us that one beat of such a pendulum would take 0.64572263956 seconds.

  The difference between the theoretical timing for a Venus pendulum and the true half Megalithic Yard pendulum in this case is 0.00023456885 seconds, which equates to a difference in the size of the full Megalithic Yard of 0.05 millimetres. Alexander Thom found that the Megalithic Yard was 82.96656 centimetres to within a tolerance of + or – 0.06 millimetres. Therefore Venus proves to be an ideal pendulum-setting clock in this case.

  We are suggesting that the Megalithic Yard could be checked and set at any latitude between 60 degrees north at the uppermost extreme, down to around 48 degrees north in its southern ranges. Although acceleration due to gravity alters slightly at differing latitudes, we found that the Venus-derived half and therefore full Megalithic Yard defined at any latitude from Orkney down to Brittany remained within Professor Thom’s findings.

  It would be incredible to believe that the involvement of Venus, being so perfectly tuned to this experiment, is nothing more than a peculiar coincidence – particularly since the ability of the planet to act as a clock only occurs when it is travelling as fast as it is capable of doing within the zodiac. It is not possible to obtain a Megalithic Yard by this method that is ‘longer’ than that found by Alexander Thom. It could therefore be suggested that if our Megalithic ancestors had carried out their experiment during every day across the whole of a Venus cycle, the ‘longest’ half Megalithic Yard pendulum they could achieve would be the correct one. In reality this would not have been necessary because we are certain they knew exactly when to take their readings (see Appendix 5).

  Remarkable as these findings are, the truly amazing fact is that those using the method managed to remain so incredibly accurate, since the deviations found by Professor Thom are so very small. This is indeed a tribute to our Megalithic ancestors who were not only great naked-eye astronomers but also very careful engineers.

  The full procedure is itemized below.

  1. Create a pendulum by taking a round pebble and make a hole in the centre to pass a piece of twine through (used as a plumb bob to find verticals by Megalithic builders).

  2. Draw a large circle on the ground, in an area with a good view of the horizon and sky. Divide the perimeter of the circle into 366 equal parts. This is quite simply done by trial and error but it is almost certain that the Megalithic astronomers knew that a circle with a diameter of 233 units would have a circumference of 732 of the same units (732 being twice 366). They could therefore arrange a diameter of 233 units (any units will do) and then mark off two units on the circumference to identify one 366th of the horizon.

  3. Build a braced framework across one 366th division of the circumference of the circle, which can be angled so that it is at 90 degrees to the angle of the path of the rising (or setting) Venus at that latitude.

  4. Observe the framework from the centre of the circle. When Venus passes into the braced framework, begin swinging the pendulum. Some initial trial and error is called for, but when exactly 366 beats of the pendulum take place while Venus is traversing the gap, the pendulum must be a half Megalithic Yard in length.

  5. Repeat the experiment on successive nights if necessary, to account for the differing speed of Venus within the zodiac. The longest pendulum achieved during the full cycle of Venus will be exactly half of the most accurate geodetic Megalithic Yard.

  Note: This technique represents one way in which the Megalithic builders could have reproduced the half Megalithic Yard. Time and study might provide others. This horizon method could be subject to very slight inaccuracy as a result of ‘refraction’ of the rising or setting Venus when it is close to the horizon. (Refraction is the distortion of the size or position of an object caused by atmospheric conditions and proximity to the horizon.) It is most likely that Venus was tracked when it was above approximately 15 degrees above the horizon, in order to obviate distortion due to refraction.

  Our astronomical associate, Peter Harwood, considers that on balance the setting Venus may have been used, rather than Venus rising as a morning star, though his consideration here has more to do with ease of observation than as a result of any technical considerations.

  APPENDIX 2

  The Formula for Finding the Volume of a Sphere

  In Chapter 3 we discussed the capacity of cubes with sides of a length that conform to the Megalithic system, for example the 4 Megalithic-Inch cube that would hold one imperial pint of water. But we also experimented with spheres, both of the same and of different Megalithic sizes as the cubes.

  In order for interested readers to be able to check our findings for themselves, we thought it might be useful for those whose schooldays may be now far behind them to be reminded of how the volume of a sphere is achieved.

  The formula is as follows: πr3. So, for example, if we want to establish the volume of a sphere of 5 Megalithic Inches in diamete
r (10.37082 centimetres) we first need to establish the radius, which in this case is 5.18541 centimetres.

  The radius cubed is 139.4277 cubic centimetres.

  Multiplying this by π we arrive at 438.0252 and of this is 584 cubic centimetres.

  In the case of a 6 Megalithic-Inch diameter sphere (12.444984 centimetres) the radius will be 6.222492 centimetres.

  The radius cubed will be 240.931198 cubic centimetres.

  Multiplying this by π we arrive at 756.9076 and of this is 1,009 cubic centimetres.

  APPENDIX 3

  More about Megalithic Music

  Music appears to be not only interesting but also absolutely essential to our species. Our research could not turn up one culture, contemporary or historical, that has been shown to be without music and rhythm. Indeed, experiments carried out in prehistoric caves and the structures created by our Megalithic ancestors seem to indicate that even the acoustic capabilities of natural and created structures have been important to humanity for many thousands of years.1 Archaeologists have also discovered percussive instruments and extremely well-made bone and antler flutes of Stone Age date.

  Developing civilizations have classified music in a number of different ways. In the modern western method of musical notation there are considered to be eight notes to a scale of music, allowing for the fact that the starting note and finishing note are the same, but one octave apart, for example C, D, E, F, G, A, B and C again.

  The tuning of musical instruments has long been a problem. If the method of tuning by fifths (supposedly credited to Pythagoras) is employed, it is not possible to play a particular instrument in different keys without retuning it because some notes will sound discordant. In order to compensate for this difficulty, western culture has adopted a method known as ‘even tempered tuning’, which allows a compensation to be ‘written into’ the tuning that spreads the accumulating pitch problem in such a way that most ears cannot identify the discrepancies.

  The modern convention of having eight notes to an octave is by no means the only possibility. Across the world there have been and still are many other ways of handling the musical scale and none is more correct than any other. It follows therefore that the pitch of specific notes will also vary from culture to culture.

  The tuning of musical instruments was once a very local matter. All that concerned the musicians was that their instruments were in tune, one with another. But as soon as music began to cross boundaries, local tunings were no longer possible, especially for many woodwind and brass instruments that are not easily retuned. As a result, much of the world now conforms to international concert tuning, in which each note has a specific frequency, for example A, which is 440 Hz.

  It was because of international concert tuning that we were able to define Megalithic mathematics and geometry in musical terms. As the Earth turns on its axis the 366 degrees of the Megalithic divisions of the Earth at the equator pass across a given point in one sidereal day. If we look at the situation in terms of the Megalithic Yard, we know that one Megalithic Second of arc of the Earth has a linear distance of 366 Megalithic Yards. Using Megalithic geometry it is possible to work out the frequencies involved.

  A Megalithic Second is more than a geometric division as far as the Earth is concerned. It is also a finite measurement of time and is equal to 0.653946 modern seconds of time. This is how long it takes the Earth to turn one Megalithic Second of arc on its axis. We have called one beat per Megalithic Second of time one Thom, or Th, and since there are 366 Megalithic Yards to a Megalithic Second of arc of the Earth, there are 366 Megalithic Yard beats to one Megalithic Second of time (one 366 Th). If we translate this into modern musical conventions and modern timekeeping, 366 Th is equal to 560 Hz, which in international concert tuning would give a note a little above C# (C sharp). But this is looking at things in terms of frequency. If we think about the Megalithic Yard in terms of wavelength, we discover that 82.96656 centimetres produces a wavelength very close to that relating to the note we would presently call G#, so both C# and G# could be said to have a very special relationship with the Megalithic system.

  With regard to rhythm, 1 beat per Megalithic second is the same as a modern expression of timing of 91.5 beats per minute. Using simple harmonics, timings of 15.25, 30.5, 45.75, 61, 76.25, 106.75, 122, 137.25, 152.5, 177.5 and also 183 beats per minute would seem to be appropriate, in the sense that they all have a harmonic relationship with 91.5 beats per minute. We therefore looked at as much indigenous music as we could from around the world in order to establish whether or not Megalithic music actually existed and in order to understand if there might be something instinctive about these pitches and timings. As far as was possible we restricted ourselves to pieces of music with a rhythms shown above and to pieces played in either C# or G#.

  It would certainly not be fair to suggest that anything like all indigenous music conforms to these patterns, because it definitely does not. Neither do we claim that we have carried out a valid scientific experiment in the case. What we can report is that we came across music from many different parts of the world that conformed in whole or part to the Megalithic system, and that these pitches and timings appear to show up more regularly than chance would dictate.

  Both the key and the rhythm were common among indigenous North American cultures, where many of the sampled chants and songs are particularly significant with regard to their rhythmic patterns. We found some examples in South America, though much of that music has been affected by Spanish and other influences and authentic recordings of Pre-Columbian music are hard to come by.

  Examples of old long-playing records created on site in Senegal, Ethiopia, Morocco and Algeria proved interesting and appeared to demonstrate strong elements of the patterns we were seeking in Africa. Some of the best examples came from much further north and east however, with Tibetan Buddhist chants showing a strong resemblance to Megalithic rhythms and keys. Probably related were Siberian songs, particularly those created by ‘overtone’ or ‘throat’ singers, some of which proved to be near perfect examples of Megalithic tunings and rhythms. Australian Aboriginal songs were also interesting, the more so because C# didgeridoos are extremely common. Rhythms vary markedly between examples we have collected, but 91.5 beats per minute, together with its mathematical subdivisions and multiples, are not uncommon.

  The greatest difficulty in this research lies in the fact that even ethnic songs and tunes are now invariably recorded in studios, where the natural inclinations of musicians, both in terms of rhythm and tuning, are subservient to the requirements of modern recording techniques. This could also account for the fact that in places such as the British Isles, it is almost impossible to access true, indigenous music. Many English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish traditional songs approximate Megalithic rhythms, but it is impossible to say for certain that this is the case. Timings of 100 beats per minute are extremely common but we suspect this owes more to engineers using electronic metres rather than to the natural caprices of musicians or the turning of our planet.

  1 Devereux, P.: Stone Age Soundtracks. Vega, London, 2001.

  APPENDIX 4

  Music and Light

  In all our discoveries during the research for this book the potential association between sound, specifically music, and light has proved to be one of the most surprising. We fully appreciate that science does not recognize a relationship between these two apparently unrelated phenomena and we have itemized the generally-stated differences between them below.

  Sound is created by a source, for example a clanging bell, and sound waves represent generally small areas of high and low pressure caused by the sound source. These variations in pressure cannot travel except through a medium, so in outer space nobody can hear you scream. However, sound can travel through wood, metal, paper, plastic, water, sulphuric acid or almost any other medium. Much of the time sound travels to our ears via the atmosphere.

  Sound can be thought of as similar to waves in water, wh
ich pass outward, like ripples caused on a pond when a stone is thrown into the water. The ear of any animal, including a human being, is specifically designed to detect the differences in pressure caused by sound waves and to pass these on to the brain, where they are interpreted as sounds. Like all waves, sound waves have frequency, so they can be measured in hertz (cycles per second).

  Light waves form part of the electromagnetic spectrum. All electromagnetic waves emanate from bodies such as suns. They are caused by charged particles thrown off from such bodies, which can travel across great distances to reach us here on the Earth. Electromagnetic waves cover a large number of frequencies from very high-frequency shortwave gamma rays, up to extremely low-frequency longwave radio waves. Many parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are harnessed by humanity, for example radio, television, electrical power, X-rays, microwaves and so on. The very world we inhabit only gave birth to life because of the electromagnetic spectrum. Plants cannot live without light, which they transpose into energy, and if it were not for plant life we could not exist either.

  Visible light is only one form of radiation that forms a tiny part (about 1,000th) of the electromagnetic spectrum; other creatures can see parts of the visible spectrum that humans cannot. Typically, humans can see light with frequencies between 4 x 1014 Hz to 8.1 x 1014 Hz. When split by a prism into its component parts, light provides a multitude of colours, varying from red at one end of the spectrum to violet at the other. In common usage these colours are often referred to as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet but in reality there is no line of demarcation between any two colours. The computer on which the typescript of this book was written is capable of producing many millions of different colours.

  The reason we see colours is that parts of the visible spectrum are absorbed by things – both animate and inanimate – upon which they fall, while others are reflected. The light that falls into our eyes represents the reflected frequencies. So, for example, since most plants do not absorb green light, it is reflected back into our eyes. The radiation from these reflections falls onto receptors in our eyes, which pass the information to our brains, where it is interpreted as colour.