The Barbarous Years: The Peopling of British North America: The Conflict of Civilizations, 1600-1675

by Bernard Bailyn

  17. Parr, De Vries, 124, 130, 151, 154, 156, 159; RB MSS, 335; David P. de Vries, “Voyages from Holland to America, A.D. 1632 to 1644,” Collections of the New-York Historical Society, 2nd ser., III, pt. I (1857), 78, 129.

  18. RB MSS, 428–29, 615, 805–46 (“Settlers of Rensselaerswyck”); Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 146–50, 154–55; Ernst van den Boogaart, “The Servant Migration to New Netherland, 1624–1664,” in Pieter C. Emmer, ed., Colonialism and Migration: Indentured Labour Before and After Slavery (Dordrecht, 1986), 73n23; Condon, New York Beginnings, 141.

  19. Jameson, Narratives, 262; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 156, 143, 118, 128–30; Joyce D. Goodfriend, “Burghers and Blacks: The Evolution of a Slave Society at New Amsterdam,” New York History, 59 (1978), 128, 130; Edmund B. O’Callaghan, History of New Netherland… (New York, 1846–48), I, 384–85; Edmund B. O’Callaghan, ed., Voyages of the Slavers … Illustrative of the Slave Trade Under the Dutch (Albany, N.Y., 1867), vi, xii–xiv. Cf. Robert J. Swan, “First Africans into New Netherland, 1625 or 1626?” de Halve Maen, 66, no. 4 (1993), 75–82.

  20. George O. Zabriskie and Alice P. Kenney, “The Founding of New Amsterdam: Fact and Fiction. Part IV. The Disgrace of Willem Van Hulst,” De Halve Maen, 51, no. 3 (1976), 11–13; “Instructions for Willem Van Hulst,” in A. J. F. van Laer, ed. and trans., Documents Relating to New Netherland, 1624–1626 (San Marino, Calif., 1924), 36–79, esp. 39, and his “Further Instructions,” 82–129; “Special Instructions for Cryn Fredericksz,” ibid., 132–68.

  21. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 84–85, 88, 91; Van Laer, ed., Documents Relating to New Netherland, 187–88; Zabriskie and Kenney, “Verhulst,” 13; Jameson, ed., Narratives, 84–85; James H. Williams, “Peter Minuit,” American National Biography Online (Feb. 2000).

  22. Jameson, ed., Narratives, 88, 89, 104; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 87, 127–28, 83; A. Eekhof, ed., Jonas Michaëlius (Leiden, 1926), 110 (Wim Klooster suggests that “hovels and cabins” seems a more reasonable translation of hutten ende coten than Eekhof’s “hovels and cots”); Docs. Rel., I, 368.

  23. Versteeg, Manhattan, 185; Van Laer, ed., Documents Relating to New Netherland, 176, 192, 195, 196, 199, 236, 200, 212, 235, and on Van Krieckenbeeck, 264; Jameson, ed., Narratives, 84–85, 105–6.

  24. RB MSS, 169–70.

  25. Eekhof, Michaëlius, chap. 7, 130–37, 68–70, 75; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 128; Jacobs, New Netherland, 276, 277.

  26. Jacobs, New Netherland, 277; E. B. O’Callaghan, New Netherland, I, 167; RB MSS, 267, 272, 271. Cf. Jaap Jacobs, “A Troubled Man: Director Van Twiller and the Affairs of New Netherland in 1635,” New York History, 85 (2004), 213–32.

  27. Jacobs, New Netherland, 277, 279; NYHM: Dutch, IV, 291–98; J. H. Innes, New Amsterdam and Its People (New York, 1902), 25.

  28. Raesly, New Netherland, 62, 65, 74–75; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 132, 133; Docs. Rel., I, 153. Raesly describes Kieft, for all his brutality, as “a man of intelligence and culture,” noting some (lost) literary work “with water-color illustrations” and his suggestion to Roger Williams, on the basis of apparent linguistic similarities, that the Indians were derived from Icelandic peoples. O’Callaghan, New Netherland, I, 394. For details on Doughty’s affairs, ibid., App. Ff.

  29. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 135; Docs. Rel., I, 110ff. (cf. 106–7), 495–502; O’Callaghan, New Netherland, I, 220–22.

  30. Merwick, Shame and Sorrow, 115; Boogaart, “Servant Migration,” 61, 77; Jameson, ed., Narratives, 259–60; O’Callaghan, New Netherland, I, 220, 433–41, 223–24, 238–39; Condon, Beginnings, 152–54; Allen W. Trelease, Indian Affairs in Colonial New York: The Seventeenth Century (Ithaca, N.Y., 1960), 61, 63; Docs. Rel., I, 181ff. (quotation at 182); Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 215, 218.

  31. Frederick W. Bogert, “Long Island Settlements Prior to 1664, Part III,” De Halve Maen, 39, no. 1 (1964), 11; Trelease, Indian Affairs, 65; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 217; E. B. O’Callaghan, trans. and ed., Laws and Ordinances of New Netherland, 1638–1674 (Albany, N.Y., 1868), 28–29; Docs. Rel., I, 150–51. For a dramatic account, in nine “scenes,” of this early phase of Kieft’s War, see Merwick, Shame and Sorrow, chap. 10. For a different account of the events of Kieft’s War than what follows, see Evan Haefeli, “Kieft’s War and the Cultures of Violence in Colonial America,” in Michael A. Bellesiles, ed., Lethal Imagination: Violence and Brutality in American History (New York, 1999), 17–46.

  32. Jameson, ed., Narratives, 208, 211, 226, 214; Docs. Rel., I, 150, 183; XIII, 7; O’Callaghan, New Netherland, I, 240, 266; NYHM: Dutch, IV, 124–25; Innes, New Amsterdam, 103.

  33. Jameson, ed., Narratives, 226–28, 273–74; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 217, 222; O’Callaghan, New Netherland, I, 270, 269; Docs. Rel., I, 151, 190, 187, 139, 210; Trelease, Indian Affairs, 72ff.; Henry C. Murphy, trans. and ed., [Cornelis Melyn?] Broad Advice to the United Netherland Provinces… (Antwerp, 1649), in Collections of the New-York Historical Society, 2nd ser., III, pt. 1 (1867), [237]–79, quotation at 257–58. Merwick, Shame and Sorrow, chaps. 11 (“The Indian War Seen”) and 12 (“The Indian War Given Words”), drawing on Benjamin Schmidt’s Innocence Abroad: The Dutch Imagination and the New World, 1570–1670 (Cambridge, England, 2001), esp. chap. 5, explores with great subtlety the cultural context of atrocity tales like Melyn’s. She explains their popular appeal and notes the inversion of roles (Dutch in New Netherland are like savage Spanish, Indians are like innocent Dutch), hence their contribution to collective guilt. She does not question the truth of the narratives and notes their acceptance by the authorities in The Hague. On Underhill: Merwick, Shame and Sorrow, 109, 179.

  34. NYHM: Dutch, IV, 189–92; Innes, New Amsterdam, 103, 292–94. For another threat to assassinate Kieft, by the Frenchman Michiel Picquet, and the discussion of the use of torture to force his confession, see ibid., 446–52.

  35. Jameson, ed., Narratives, 374–76; David M. Riker, “Govert Loockermans: Free Merchant of New Amsterdam,” de Halve Maen, 54, no. 60 (June 1981), 4–10; Dennis J. Maika, “Commerce and Community: Manhattan’s Merchants in the Seventeenth Century” (Ph.D. diss, New York University, 1995), 51–59; Russell Shorto, The Island at the Center of the World (New York, 2004), 139–40; Henry H. Kessler and Eugene Rachlis, Peter Stuyvesant and His New York (New York, 1959), 68–69; Dennis J. Maika, “Leadership in Manhattan’s Merchant Community,” Atlantic History Seminar Papers, Harvard University (2002), 10.

  36. In his first approach to Van Rensselaer, Van der Donck proposed simply to sponsor the migration to Rensselaerswyck of two or three farmers and their families. RB MSS, 527.

  37. Ibid., 608, 554–55, 557, 573–75, 603, 608, 547–50.

  38. Shorto, Island, 109, 132; the letter of admonition, Mar. 9, 1643, is in RB MSS, 630–44; quotations at 644, 636–37. On Van der Donck’s failure as schout, see Stefan Bielinski, “The Schout in Rensselaerswijck: A Conflict of Interests,” in Nancy Zeller, ed., A Beautiful and Fruitful Place: Selected Rensselaerswijck Seminar Papers (New York, 1991), 6–10.

  39. Shorto, Island, 138–39.

  40. Adriaen van der Donck, A Description of New Netherland [1655] (Charles T. Gehring and William A. Starna, eds., Diederik W. Goedhuys, trans., Lincoln, Neb., 2008) is discussed more fully below, pp. 236–37; quotations here at 80, 75.

  41. Bielinski, “Schout,” 10; Shorto, Island, 163. Van Curler’s struggle with Van der Donck grew out of Van der Donck’s claim that Van Rensselaer should pay for the loss of his house: O’Callaghan, History, I, 345, with details in App. O: “he gave me the lie,” Van Curler alleged, “Here came the wolf out of sheep’s clothing! Here hypocrisy removed the mask from her own face!” 469.

  42. Innes, New Netherland, 284–86, 290; Christian J. Koot, “The Merchant, the Map, and Empire: Augustine Herrman’s … Trade, 1644–73,” WMQ, 67 (2010), 609, 612ff.; Earl L. W. Heck, Augustine Herrman (Englewood, Ohio, 1941), chaps. 1, 2; Jacobs, New Netherland, 358. It seems reasonable that Herrman, a skilled draftsman in close touch with
the engraver of his map, would have drawn the quite distinctive portrait that appears on the map.

  43. Docs. Rel., I, 209–13; Jacobs, New Netherland, 140.

  44. Jaap Jacobs, “Like Father, Like Son: The Early Years of Petrus Stuyvesant,” in Joyce Goodfriend, ed., Revisiting New Netherland (Leiden, 2005), 221ff. (fifty-five of the books Stuyvesant auctioned are listed, 237–42); Shorto, Island, 149–50, 153; Kessler and Rachlis, Stuyvesant, 45–50; O’Callaghan, New Netherland, II, 25.

  45. Shorto, Island, 151, 154, 174, 176ff.; NYHM: Dutch, IV, 370–71, 405–11; Docs. Rel., I, 205–9 (cf. 213, 214).

  46. Jameson, ed., Narratives, 259–60; Arthur E. Peterson and George W. Edwards, New York as an Eighteenth-Century Municipality (New York, 1917), 93–94; Innes, New Netherland, 81–82; Carl Bridenbaugh, Cities in the Wilderness (New York, 1938), 111.

  47. Kessler and Rachlis, Stuyvesant, 66–67, 96.

  48. Jacobs, New Netherland, 488; NYHM: Dutch, IV, 600–1, 586; Kessler and Rachlis, Stuyvesant, 97–99.

  49. Docs. Rel., I, 259–61, 262–70, 275–318. The Remonstrance is also in Jameson, ed., Narratives, 293–354. Quotations at ibid., 320, 342, 340; Docs. Rel. I, 317–18.

  50. Van Tienhoven’s “Answer”: Docs. Rel., I, 422ff., and Jameson, Narratives, 359ff.

  51. Shorto, Island, 217, 224, 227, 240–42, 279, 226; Charles T. Gehring, trans. and ed., Correspondence, 1647–1653 (New Netherlands Documents Series, XI, Syracuse, N.Y., 2000), 82.

  52. Van der Donck, Description, 95–97, 103.

  53. Gehring, ed., Correspondence, 203; O’Callaghan, New Netherland, II, 550–51.

  54. Heck, Herrman, 49; Docs. Rel., I, 497–98; Koot, “The Merchant, Map, and Empire,” 635; Jacobs, New Netherland, 305. For Herrman’s journal account of his mission to Maryland, Docs. Rel., II, 88–98; William G. Duvall, “Smuggling Sotweed: Augustine Herrman and the Dutch Connection,” MHM, 98, no. 4 (2003), 399.

  55. Bartlett B. James and J. Franklin Jameson, eds., Journal of Jasper Danckaerts, 1679–1680 (New York, 1913), xviii–xx, 112–16.

  56. Docs. Rel., II, 99; Koot, “The Merchant, Map, and Empire,” 615–30, emphasizing the map’s design as a statement of Herrman’s transnational, trans-imperial view of the world; J. Louis Kuethe, “A Gazetteer of Maryland, A.D. 1673,” MHM, 30 (1935), 310–25; Karel J. Kansky, “Augustine Herrman: the Leading Cartographer of the Seventeenth Century,” MHM, 73 (1978), 352–359.

  CHAPTER 9

  Carnage and Civility in a Developing Hub of Commerce

  1. Docs. Rel., I, 246, 318; Russell Shorto, The Island at the Center of the World (New York, 2004), 226.

  2. Dixon R. Fox, Yankees and Yorkers (New York, 1940), 59–62; Winthrop, Journal, 325–27; James T. Adams, History of the Town of Southampton (Bridgehampton, N.Y., 1918), 53; Evarts B. Greene and Virginia D. Harrington, American Population Before the Federal Census of 1790 (New York, 1932), 93 note g.

  3. Fox, Yankees and Yorkers, 61; Frederick W. Bogert, “Long Island Settlements, Part I,” de Halve Maen, 38 (1963), 6.

  4. Jessica Kross, The Evolution of an American Town: Newtown, New York, 1642–1775 (Philadelphia, 1983), 13, 111; Docs. Rel., I, 181, 44; George L. Smith, Religion and Trade in New Netherland: Dutch Origins and American Development (Ithaca, N.Y., 1973), 172n38, 224–25; Winthrop, Journal, 475n13; Emery Battis, Saints and Sectaries (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1962), 248.

  5. Winthrop, Journal, 462–63; Lucille L. Koppelman, “Lady Deborah Moody and Gravesend, 1643–1659,” de Halve Maen, 67, no. 2 (1994), 38–43; Cotton Mather, Magnalia Christi Americana: or the Ecclesiastical History of New England… [1702] (facsimile ed., New York, 1972), bk. III, chap. 9; Frederick W. Bogert, “Long Island Settlements, Part II,” de Halve Maen, 38, no. 4 (1964), 12, 15; Smith, Religion and Trade, 224–25; Frederick Zwierlein, Religion in New Netherland (Rochester, N.Y., 1910), 160–62; Jaap Jacobs, New Netherland (Leiden, 1999), 152–54.

  6. [Benjamin D. Hicks, ed.,] Records of the Towns of North and South Hempstead, Long Island, N.Y. (Jamaica, N.Y., 1896), I, 8. The paragraphs that follow, on the struggle between the Dutch and English for control of southern Connecticut, are drawn from Oliver A. Rink, Holland on the Hudson (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), 122–23, 125, 247; Fox, Yankees and Yorkers, 84–85; and Donna Merwick, Possessing Albany, 1630–1710: The Dutch and English Experiences (Cambridge, England, 1990), 68.

  7. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 246–49; Ronald D. Cohen, “The Hartford Treaty of 1650…,” New-York Historical Society Quarterly, 53 (1969), 311–22. Cf. Claudia Schnurmann, Atlantische Welten: Engländer und Niederländer im amerikanisch-atlantischen Raum, 1648–1713 (Cologne, 1998), 86–90.

  8. Simon Middleton, “Order and Authority in New Netherland: The 1653 Remonstrance and Early Settlement Politics,” WMQ, 67 (2010), 52–55, 58–66; Docs. Rel., II, 151–52.

  9. Martha D. Shattuck, “A Civil Society: Court and Community in Beverwijck, New Netherland, 1652–1664” (Ph.D. diss., Boston University, 1993), 51ff.; Donna Merwick, Possessing Albany, 77–78.

  10. Shattuck, “Civil Society,” 73–74, 240ff., 251, 255, 285–91, 198, 196, 227; Merwick, Possessing Albany, 79–81, 90–91.

  11. Shattuck, “Civil Society,” 249, 78ff.; Merwick, Possessing Albany, 77; John J. McCusker, Essays in the Economic History of the Atlantic World (London, 1997), 116, with correction to £30,429 by Professor McCusker in correspondence.

  12. Boogaart, “Servant Migration,” App. I; Firth Haring Fabend, A Dutch Family in the Middle Colonies, 1660–1800 (New Brunswick, N.J., 1991), 265.

  13. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 233; Charles R. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil, 1624–1654 (Oxford, England, 1957), 242–45. For the fortunes of one Dutch-Brazilian refugee of note in New Amsterdam, the Rev. Jacob Polhemus, see Ellis L. Raesly, Portrait of New Netherland (New York, 1945), 226–28.

  14. Jacob R. Marcus, The Colonial American Jew, 1492–1776 (Detroit, Mich., 1970), I, 205, 209–11, 216ff.; Boxer, Dutch in Brazil, 243; Johannes M. Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade 1600–1815 (Cambridge, England, 1990), 19. Two recent collections of essays explore in detail the history of the Jews in the early modern Atlantic world: Paolo Bernadini and Norman Fiering, eds., The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450 to 1800 (New York, 2001), esp. the essay by James H. Williams; and Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos, and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism, 1508–1800 (Baltimore, Md., 2009).

  15. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 230–33; Smith, Religion and Trade, chap. 12.

  16. Marcus, Colonial Jew, I, 219–21, 224–26, 238–40; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 233–34; J. Franklin Jameson, ed., Narratives of New Netherland, 1609–1654 (New York, 1909), 392–93.

  17. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 235–37; Smith, Religion and Trade, 220–30, quotation at 230; Kross, Newtown, 45. For the text of the “Flushing Remonstrance,” Smith, Religion and Trade, 225.

  18. Postma, Dutch Slave Trade, 16–17, 21; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 169, 163–64; Joyce D. Goodfriend, “Burghers and Blacks: The Evolution of a Slave Society at New Amsterdam,” New York History, 59 (1978), 126, 133, 134. For an opposing view, that the West India Company never contemplated making New Netherland an entrepôt for the distribution of slaves, see Pieter Emmer, “The History of the Dutch Slave Trade, a Bibliographical Survey,” Journal of Economic History, 32 (1972), 735.

  19. Robert J. Swan, “First Africans into New Netherland, 1625 or 1626?” de Halve Maen, 66, no. 4 (1993), 75–83; Boogaart, “Servant Migration,” 58; Goodfriend, “Burghers and Blacks,” 130.

  20. Boogaart, “Servant Migration,” 58–59; Goodfriend, “Burghers and Blacks,” 128–29, 138, 139, 141–44; Joyce D. Goodfriend, Before the Melting Pot: Society and Culture in Colonial New York City, 1664–1739 (Princeton, N.J., 1992), 13, 10; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 129, 163. Goodfriend, who makes clear that the blacks of this period did not become skilled workers, gives higher estimates of their percentage of the population in 1664 than the estimates (Boo
gaart’s) cited. For evidence of another full slave ship arrival and of slave auctions, see Raesly, Portrait of New Netherland, 160.

  21. Peter R. Christoph, “The Freedmen of New Amsterdam,” in Nancy A. M. Zeller, ed., A Beautiful and Fruitful Place: Selected Rensselaerswijck Seminar Papers ([Albany, N.Y.,] 1991), 158, 166; Edgar J. McManus, A History of Negro Slavery in New York (Syracuse, N.Y., 1966), 13, 43–45; Graham R. Hodges, Root & Branch: African Americans in New York & East Jersey (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1999), 41–43; E. B. O’Callaghan, comp., trans., and ed., Laws and Ordinances of New Netherland, 1638–1674 (Albany, N.Y., 1868), 36–37; Vivienne Kruger, “Born to Run: The Slave Family in Early New York, 1626–1829” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1985), 165.

  22. Kruger, “Born to Run,” 261ff.; Christoph, “Freedmen,” 161–62, 157; McManus, Negro Slavery, 12, 16, 22.

  23. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 165–71; Boxer, Dutch in Brazil, 246; Docs. Rel., XIII, 205; Jaap Jacobs, New Netherland (Leiden, 1999), 54. Rink is inconsistent in his figures. In his table 6.4 (p. 166) he leaves out the ship Purmerlandkerk to correct O’Callaghan’s list in his Documentary History of the State of New-York (Albany, N.Y., 1849–51), III, 52–63 (not 33–42); but in the figures he uses in his text explaining the table, he does use that ship. Hence the table lists 167 families but the text refers to 176 families. All the figures here are taken from the table, not from his text.

  24. Ibid., 166, 168, 169; Goodfriend, Before the Melting Pot, 15–17; [Mariana G.] Van Rensselaer, History of the City of New York in the Seventeenth Century (New York, 1909), I, 421.

  25. Donna Merwick, The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch Amerindian Encounters in New Netherland (Philadelphia, 2006), 216; Shorto, Island, 266; Van Rensselaer, City of New York, I, 455–56; E. B. O’Callaghan, History of New Netherland; or, New York Under the Dutch (New York, 1846–48), II, 540; Jameson, ed., Narratives, 421, 423; Claudia Schnurmann, “Seventeenth-Century Atlantic Commerce and Nieuw Amsterdam / New York Merchants,” in Hermann Wellenreuther, ed., Jacob Leisler’s Atlantic World in the Later Seventeenth-Century (Berlin, 2009), 65.