by Peter Watson
53. Ibid. See also Clemens Kauffmann, Leo Strauss zur Einführung (Hamburg: Junius, 1997).
54. Götz Aly and Susanne Heim, Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1991), p. 58.
55. Ibid., p. 54.
56. Ibid., p. 61.
57. Ibid., p. 86.
58. Ibid., p. 95.
59. Ibid., p. 179.
60. Ibid., p. 166.
61. Ulf Schmidt, Karl Brandt: The Nazi Doctor; Medicine and Power in the Third Reich (London: Hambledon Continuum, 2007), pp. 125ff.
CHAPTER 36: THE TWILIGHT OF THE THEOLOGIANS
1. I have used Brian Moynahan, The Faith (London: Aurum, 2002), p. 675.
2. Ibid.
3. F. X. J. Homer, “The Führer’s Faith: Hitler’s Sacred Cosmos,” in F. X. J. Homer and Larry D. Wilcox, eds., Germany and Europe in the Era of Two World Wars: Essays in Honour of Oron James Hale (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1986), pp. 61–78.
4. Alistair McGrath, The Making of Modern German Christology: From the Enlightenment to Pannenberg (Oxford: Blackwell, 1986), p. 5.
5. Wilhelm Pauck, Harnack and Troeltsch: Two Historical Theologians (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), p. 117, for Troeltsch’s address at Harnack’s funeral.
6. McGrath, Making of Modern German Christology, p. 61.
7. Franz L. Neumann, et al., The Cultural Migration: The European Scholar in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1953), p. 140.
8. Johannes Hemleben, Rudolf Steiner und Ernst Haeckel (Stuttgart: Verlag Freies Geistesleben, 1965), pp. 38ff. Geoffrey Ahern, Sun at Midnight: The Rudolf Steiner Movement and the Western Esoteric Tradition (Wellingborough: Aquarian Press, 1984), p. 87ff.
9. Ahern, Sun at Midnight, p. 64.
10. See the account of a Vienna congress in 1922 in Guenther Wachsmuth, The Life and Works of Rudolf Steiner: From the Turn of the Century to His Death (New York: Whittier, 1955), p. 445.
11. Bruce L. McCormack, Karl Barth’s Critically Dialectical Theology: Its Genesis and Development, 1909–1936 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 38ff., for a description of “The theological situation at the turn of the century.”
12. Martin Rumscheidt, Revelation and Theology: An Analysis of the Barth-Harnack Correspondence of 1923 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), pp. 31–34 and 75–78.
13. Eberhard Busch, Karl Barth: His Life from Letters and Autobiographical Texts, trans. by John Bowden (London: SCM Press, 1976), pp. 38ff.
14. McGrath, Making of Modern German Christology, p. 94.
15. Busch, Karl Barth, pp. 92f. and 117f.
16. Zdravko Kujundzija, Boston Collaborative Encyclopaedia of Western Theology, entry on Barth, p. 16. http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/bce/
17. Busch, Karl Barth, pp. 120f. McCormack, Karl Barth’s Critically Dialectical Theology, pp. 209ff.
18. McCormack, Karl Barth’s Critically Dialectical Theology, p. 371. Kimlyn J. Bender, Karl Barth’s Christological Ecclesiology (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), pp. 95f.
19. Busch, Karl Barth, p. 245.
20. Kujundzija, Boston Collaborative Encyclopaedia, p. 17.
21. McCormack. Karl Barth’s Critically Dialectical Theology, p. 449.
22. Martin Evang, Rudolf Bultmann in seiner Frühzeit (Tübingen: Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1988), pp. 211f. Bernd Jaspert, ed., Karl Barth–Rudolf Bultmann Letters, 1922–1966, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromley (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 1982).
23. John MacQuarrie, The Scope of Demythologising: Bultmann and His Critics (London: SCM Press, 1960), pp. 65ff. and 151ff.
24. David L. Edwards, “Rudolf Bultmann: Scholar of Faith,” Christian Century, September 1–8, 1976, pp. 728–730. McGrath, Making of Modern German Christology, p. 135.
25. MacQuarrie, Scope of Demythologising, pp. 186ff.
26. Busch, Karl Barth, p. 141.
27. For his links to Erich Fromm, Sidney Hook and others, and his comparison of psychology and sociology to the “spiritual vacuum,” see Raymond F. Bulman, A Blueprint for Humanity: Paul Tillich’s Theology of Culture (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1981), in particular pp. 128ff.
28. Sabine Leibholz-Bonhoeffer, The Bonhoeffers: Portrait of a Family (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1971), p. 17.
29. For the debt to Barth, see Ronald Gregor Smith, World Comes of Age: A Symposium on Dietrich Bonhoeffer (London: Collins, 1967), pp. 93ff.
30. Eberhard Bethge, Dietrich Bonhoeffer: Theologe. Christ. Zeitgenosse (Munich: Kaiser, 1967), pp. 183f.
31. Ibid., p. 1036.
32. Ibid., pp. 803–811. See also Eberhard Bethge, Bonhoeffer: Exile and Martyr (London: Collins, 1975).
33. James Brabazon, Albert Schweitzer: A Biography (Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2000), pp. 64ff.
34. Ibid., pp. 110ff.
35. Ibid., pp. 443ff.
36. Maurice Friedman, Encounter on the Narrow Ridge: A Life of Martin Buber (New York: Paragon House, 1991).
37. Moynahan, Faith, p. 678.
38. Ernst Christian Helmreich, The German Churches under Hitler: Background, Struggle, and Epilogue (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1979), p. 123. J. S. Conway, The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, 1933–1945 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1968), p. 2.
39. Richard Steigmann-Gall, The Holy Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 1.
40. Ibid., p. 6.
41. Ibid., p. 37.
42. Ibid., p. 42.
43. Ibid., p. 234.
44. Ibid., p. 111.
45. Robert P. Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler (New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press, 1985), p. 52.
46. Ibid., page 56.
47. Paul Althaus, Die Ethik Martin Luthers (Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus G. Mohn, 1965).
48. Ericksen, Theologians under Hitler, p. 103.
49. Emanuel Hirsch, Das Wesen des reformatorischen Christentums (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1963), pp. 105ff. Ericksen, Theologians, pp. 155–165.
50. Moynahan, Faith, p. 680.
51. James Bentley, Martin Niemöller (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), pp. 81f and 143ff.
CHAPTER 37: THE FRUITS, FAILURES, AND INFAMY OF GERMAN WARTIME SCIENCE
1. Remy, Heidelberg Myth, pp. 85–86.
2. Ibid., pp. 95–96.
3. Alfred Weber, for example, published a work of 423 pages in 1935, Kulturgeschichte als Kultursoziologie (Munich: Piper).
4. Fritz Ernst wrote an article about Karl the Bold of Burgundy (1433–77) containing these lines: “What he lacked was balance…He allowed a glut of hate and ambition to consume him, without drawing lasting strength from it…So never did he have an inner freedom…despite elementary military mistakes he held himself to be a great field commander.” Remy, Heidelberg Myth, p. 113.
5. Remy, Heidelberg Myth, pp. 222–223.
6. Ibid., p. 231.
7. Cassidy, Uncertainty, p. 420.
8. Ibid., p. 435. See also Rainer Karlsch, Hitlers Bombe: Die geheime Geschichte der deutschen Kernwaffenversuche (Munich: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt, 2005), p. 72 for Houtermans.
9. Paul Lawrence Rose, Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1998).
10. Karlsch, Hitlers Bombe, pp. 54f. and 107f.
11. Eduard Schönleben, Fritz Todt, der Mensch, der Ingenieur, der National-sozialist: Ein Bericht über Leben und Werk (Oldenburg: G. Stalling, 1943), pp. 108ff.
12. Cornwell, Hitler’s Scientists, p. 317.
13. Cassidy, Uncertainty, pp. 397ff., for a chapter on “German Physics.” See also Karlsch, Hitlers Bombe, pp. 266–270. Karlsch claims the Germans actually built an atomic reactor at Gottow, a village outside Berlin and tested a device on the island of Rügens in March 1945.
14. Although Speer had canceled the German atomic bomb project, the Allies didn’t know that, and, at the time of the D-Day landings in 1944, General Leslie Groves, commandin
g officer of the Manhattan Project, worried that the Germans “would prepare an impenetrable radioactive defence against our landing troops.” That didn’t materialize and the special group Alsos under the émigré Dutch scientist Samuel Goudsmit, which had been set up to follow the advance troops and investigate German scientific achievements, soon discovered that their bomb research was well behind that of the Allies, even though the institute in Berlin had transferred to a safer location, at Haigerloch in the Swabian Alps. Alsos also discovered that three of the German atom physicists, Walter Gerlach, Kurt Diebner, and Karl Wirtz, had transferred some of their uranium and heavy water to Haigerloch but had left the remainder in the German capital where, to the Allies’s dismay and Stalin’s pleasure, it was discovered by the NKVD (Peoples’ Commissariat for Internal Affairs) on April 24, 1945. Cornwell, Hitler’s Scientists, p. 334.
15. Cornwell, Hitler’s Scientists, p. 253.
16. Ibid., p. 289.
17. Erik Bergaust, Satellite (London: Lutterworth Press, 1957), p. 28, for more of Oberth’s ideas.
18. Cornwell, Hitler’s Scientists, p. 256.
19. Steven Rose, ed., C. B. W. Chemical and Biological Warfare: London Conference on C. B. W. (London and Toronto: Harrap, 1968), passim.
20. I have used Diarmuid Jeffreys, Hell’s Cartel: I.G. Farben and the Making of Hitler’s War Machine (London: Bloomsbury, 2008), chaps. 10 and 12. See also Stephan H. Lindner, Inside IG Farben: Hoechst during the Third Reich, trans. Helen Schoop (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), chap. 4.4, pp. 307ff. for Farben’s drug experiments on human subjects.
21. Jeffreys, Hell’s Cartel, pp. 321ff.
22. Many other inmates had their eyes injected with dyes or were shot with poisoned bullets to see how quickly the poisons worked. Ute Deichman, Biologists under Hitler, trans. Thomas Dunlap (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996).
23. Franz M. Wuketits, Konrad Lorenz: Leben und Werk eines grossen Naturforschers (Munich: Piper, 1990), pp. 108ff.
24. Alex Nisbett, in his 1976 biography of Lorenz, gives a version of this episode that is much kinder to his subject. Alex Nisbett, Konrad Lorenz (London: Dent & Sons, 1976), pp. 78–79. In 1988 Lorenz published The Waning of Humaneness, trans. Robert Warren Kickert (London: Unwin Hyman), without any apparent trace of irony. It had originally appeared in German in 1983.
25. In a textbook, Human Heredity, originally published in Germany in 1927, Fischer wrote an entire section on “Racial Differences in Mankind,” and Fritz Lenz wrote on “Psychological Differences between the Leading Races of Mankind.”
26. For an excellent overview of the medical, legal, and moral issues swirling around sterlization and euthanasia in the Third Reich, and many useful references, see Gisela Bock, “Sterilisation and ‘Medical’ Massacres in National Socialist Germany: Ethics, Politics and the Law,” in Berg and Cocks, eds., Medicine and Modernity, pp. 149–172.
27. Dupuy, Genius for War, p. 253.
CHAPTER 38: EXILE, AND THE ROAD INTO THE OPEN
1. On figures, see, for example, Donald Peterson Kent, The Refugee Intellectual (New York: Columbia University Press, 1953), pp. 11–16; Jean-Michel Palmier, Weimar in Exile: The AntiFascist Emigration in Europe and America, trans. David Fernbach (London: Verso, 2006), pp. 11–15. Volkmar von Zühlsdorff, Hitler’s Exiles: The German Cultural Resistance in America and Europe, trans. Martin H. Bott (London: Continuum, 2004).
2. There is now a sizable literature on German refugees, with a good deal of overlap between titles. Chapters 39 and 40 of this book are devoted to their longer-term cultural and intellectual impact in the United States and the United Kingdom, and my chief sources are given there. Also recommended are Steffen Pross, In London treffen wir uns wieder (Berlin: Eichborn, 2000), the best account in German, useful for that reason alone. Charmian Brinson, et al., eds., “England? Aber wo liegt es?”: Deutsche und österreichische Emigranten in Grossbritannien (Munich: Iudicium, 1996). Reinhold Brinkmann and Christoph Wolff, eds., Driven into Paradise: The Musical Migration from Nazi Germany to the United States (Berkeley and London: University of California Press, 1999), contains a good chapter on Korngold, pp. 223f., and on Black Mountain College, p. 279. Tom Ambrose, Hitler’s Loss: What Britain and America Gained from Europe’s Cultural Exiles (London: Peter Owen in association with the European Jewish Publication Society, 2001). The Council for Assisting Refugee Academics has recently been commemorated in Jeremy Seabrook’s The Refugee and the Fortress: Britain and the Flight from Tyranny (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
3. Varian Fry, Surrender on Demand (Boulder, Colo.: Johnson Books, 1997); and Andy Marino, American Pimpernel: The Man Who Saved the Artists on Hitler’s Death List (London: Hutchinson, 1999).
4. Rosemary Sullivan, Villa Air-Bel: The Second World War, Escape, and a House in France (London: John Murray, 2006), pp. 83ff. and 251ff.
5. Watson, Modern Mind/Terrible Beauty, p. 356.
6. Ibid., p. 357. The historian Lawrence Wechsler has gone so far as to prepare an “alternative” Hollywood map, displaying the addresses of intellectuals and scholars, as opposed to the more conventional map showing the homes of movie stars.
7. Colin Loader, The Intellectual Development of Karl Mannheim: Culture, Politics, and Planning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 19. Mannheim also became the editor of the International Library of Sociology and Social Reconstruction, a large series of books published by George Routledge whose authors included Harold Lasswell, professor of political science at Chicago, E. F. Schumacher, Raymond Firth, Erich Fromm, and Edward Shils.
8. Loader, Intellectual Development, p. 162.
9. Thomas K. McCraw, Prophet of Innovation: Joseph Schumpeter and Creative Destruction (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007), p. 248.
10. Yuichi Shionoya, Schumpeter and the Idea of Social Science: A Metatheoretical Study (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 124.
11. McCraw, Prophet of Innovation, p. 255.
12. Stephen F. Frowen, ed., Hayek: Economist and Social Philosopher; A Critical Retrospect, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997, pp. 63ff and 237ff.
13. Andrew Gamble, Hayek: The Iron Cage of Liberty (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), pp. 59ff.
14. Malachi Haim Hacohen, Karl Popper, the Formative Years, 1902–1945: Politics and Philosophy in Interwar Vienna (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 186ff.
15. Anthony O’Hear, ed., Karl Popper: Philosophy and Problems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 45ff and 75ff.
16. Hacohen, Karl Popper, pp. 383ff.
17. O’Hear, ed., Karl Popper, p. 225.
18. Watson, Modern Mind/Terrible Beauty, pp. 374–375.
19. James, Cultural Amnesia, pp. 48ff.
20. Martin Mauthner, German Writers in French Exile (London and Portland, Ore.: Valentine Mitchell, in association with the European Jewish Publication Society, 2007), p. 58. For Clive James’s stylish dismissal of Walter Benjamin, see his Cultural Amnesia, pp. 47–55.
21. Mauthner, German Writers, p. 60.
CHAPTER 39: THE “FOURTH REICH”: THE EFFECT OF GERMAN THOUGHT ON AMERICA
1. Allan Bloom, The Closing of the American Mind (London: Penguin, 1987), pp. 148–149.
2. Ibid., p. 152.
3. Franz L. Neumann, et al., The Cultural Migration: The European Scholar in America (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania University Press, 1953), pp. 34–35.
4. Some of the general references on prominent German refugees/exiles in the cultural/scientific spheres were given in Chapter 38, note 2. To them may be added Jean Michel Palmier, Weimar in Exile: The Antifascist Emigration in Europe and America, trans. David Fernbach (London: Verso, 2006), a very solid, systematic study of more than 600 pages, with sections on the press, publishing, and literature, on the theater, academics, and on Hollywood at war. Erhard Bahr and Carolyn See, Literary Exiles & Refugees in Los Angeles: Papers Presented at a Clark Library Seminar, 14 April 1984 (Los Angeles: William
Andrews Clark Memorial Library, 1988), has two sections, one on Weimar exiles and one on English expatriates. Hartmut Lehmann and James J. Sheehan, eds., An Interrupted Past: German-speaking Refugee Historians in the United States after 1933 (Washington, D.C., and Cambridge: German Historical Institute and Cambridge University Press, 1991), includes a chapter on German historians in the OSS (Office of Strategic Services), and chapters on Hajo Holborn, Ernst Kantorowicz, and Theodor Mommsen. Mitchell G. Ash and Alfons Söllner, eds., Forced Migration and Scientific Change: Émigré German-speaking Scientists and Scholars after 1933 (Washington, D.C., and Cambridge: German Historical Institute and Cambridge University Press, 1996), is admirably detailed. Joachim Radkau, Die deutsche Emigration in den USA (Düsseldorf: Bertelsmann Universitätsverlag, 1971). Helge Pross, Die deutsche akademische Emigration nach den Vereinigten Staaten 1933–1941 (Berlin: Dunker & Humblot, 1955).
5. Anthony Heilbut, Exiled in Paradise: German Refugee Artists and Intellectuals in America, from the 1930s to the Present (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983 and 1997, with a new postscript), pp. 44, 46, 51, and 65.
6. Ibid., p. 77.
7. Ibid., p. 130.
8. Ibid.
9. Lewis A. Coser, Refugee Scholars in America: Their Impact and Their Experiences (New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale Univesity Press, 1984), p. 35.
10. Ibid., p. 47.
11. Lawrence J. Friedman, Identity’s Architect: A Biography of Erik H. Erikson (London: Free Association Books, 1999), p. 157.
12. Ibid., pp. 149ff.
13. Ibid., p. 156.
14. Nina Sutton, The Other Side of Madness, trans. David Sharp and the author (London: Duck-worh, 1995), pp. 120ff. See also Bruno Bettelheim, Recollections and Reflections (London: Thames & Hudson, 1990).
15. Sutton, Other Side of Madness, p. 269.
16. Heilbut, Exiled in Paradise, p. 209.
17. Sutton, Other Side of Madness, pp. 268f.
18. Coser, Refugee Scholars, p. 70.
19. Lawrence Wilde, Erich Fromm and the Quest for Solidarity (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 19–36.
20. Coser, Refugee Scholars, p. 72.
21. Daniel Burston, The Legacy of Erich Fromm (Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press, 1991), pp. 133ff. for the “pathology of normalcy.”
